Nitrogen balance in Australia and nitrogen use efficiency on Australian farms
J. F. Angus A C and P. R. Grace B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A CSIRO Agriculture and Food, GPO Box 1700, Canberra 2601, ACT, Australia and EH Graham Centre, Charles Sturt University, Locked Bag 588, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia.
B Queensland University of Technology, 2 George St, Brisbane, Queensland 4000, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: john.angus@csiro.au
Soil Research 55(6) 435-450 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR16325
Submitted: 20 January 2017 Accepted: 30 June 2017 Published: 21 August 2017
Abstract
The amount of reactive N in soils on the Australian continent appears to be increasing, mainly because of biological N-fixation by permanent pastures in the dryland farming zone. This gain is partly offset by N-mining by crops, which we estimate have removed between one-fifth and one-quarter of the original soil N. The vast areas of non-agricultural land and arid rangelands appear to be in neutral N balance and the relatively small area of intensive agriculture is in negative balance. There are regional N losses from the sugar and dairy industries to groundwater, estuaries and lagoons, including the Great Barrier Reef. Fertiliser N application is increasing, and is likely to increase further, to compensate for the soil-N mining and to meet increasing crop yield potential, but fertiliser-N represents a relatively small fraction of the Australian N balance. The dryland farming zone utilises the largest amounts of native and fertiliser N. The average fertiliser application to dryland cereals and oilseeds, 45 kg N ha–1, is low by international standards because of the small N-demand by dryland crops and because there are no subsidies on crops or fertiliser that promote overuse. The efficiency of N-use is relatively low, for example about 40% of fertiliser N is recovered in the aboveground parts of dryland wheat and the rest is retained in the soil, denitrified or otherwise lost. We suggest further research on fertiliser-application methods to increase crop recovery of fertiliser, as well as research to reduce the surplus N from permanent pasture.
Additional keywords: 15N, crops, dairy, immobilisation, denitrification, mineralisation, nitrogen budget, nitrogen mining.
References
Aarons SR, Gourley CJP, Powell M, Hannah MC (2017) Estimating nitrogen excretion and deposition by lactating cows in grazed dairy systems. Soil Research 55,| Estimating nitrogen excretion and deposition by lactating cows in grazed dairy systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
ABARES (2010) Land use in Australia – at a glance. www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/aclump/Documents/Land_use_in_Australia_at_a_glance_2006.pdf
ABARES (2015) Australian commodity statistics 2015. www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/publications/display?url=http://143.188.17.20/anrdl/DAFFService/display.php?fid=pb_agcstd9abcc0022015_11a.xml
Addiscott TM (2005) ‘Nitrate, agriculture and the environment.’ (CABI Publishing: Wallingford, UK)
Anderson GC, Fillery IRP, Dunin FX, Dolling PJ, Asseng S (1998) Nitrogen and water flows under pasture-wheat and lupin-wheat rotations in deep sands in Western Australia 2. Drainage and nitrate leaching. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 49, 345–361.
| Nitrogen and water flows under pasture-wheat and lupin-wheat rotations in deep sands in Western Australia 2. Drainage and nitrate leaching.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXisFGqsbk%3D&md5=c3c3341e05d615f6db1f79afb6700394CAS |
Angus JF (1995) Modeling N fertilization requirements for crops and pastures. In ‘Nitrogen fertilization and the environment’. (Ed. PE Bacon) pp. 109–127. (Marcel Dekker: New York)
Angus JF (2001) Nitrogen supply and demand in Australian agriculture. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 41, 277–288.
| Nitrogen supply and demand in Australian agriculture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXkt1CrsbY%3D&md5=5149c5f061b29ad60f2150c72a82e631CAS |
Angus JF, Good AJ (2004) Dryland cropping in Australia. In ‘Challenges and strategies of dryland agriculture.’ (Eds S Rao, J Ryan) pp. 151–166. (American Society of Agronomy: Madison WI, USA)
Angus JF, Peoples MB (2012) Nitrogen from Australian dryland pastures. Crop & Pasture Science 63, 746–758.
| Nitrogen from Australian dryland pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Angus JF, van Herwaarden AF, Fischer RA (1989) Predicting the yield response of wheat to topdressed nitrogen. p. 550 In: Proceedings of the 5th Australian Agronomy Conference. http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/1989/contributed/plant-nutrition/p-18.htm
Angus JF, van Herwaarden AF, Fischer RA, Howe GN, Heenan DP (1998) The source of mineral nitrogen for cereals in southeastern Australia. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 49, 511–522.
| The source of mineral nitrogen for cereals in southeastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXisFGqt74%3D&md5=89908375e1e2878c99c876991da4b389CAS |
Angus JF, Bolger TP, Kirkegaard JA, Peoples MB (2006) Nitrogen mineralisation in relation to previous crops and pastures. Australian Journal of Soil Research 44, 355–365.
| Nitrogen mineralisation in relation to previous crops and pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XmtFKgsL4%3D&md5=bab1b024b7a35fd1c52373168a33c970CAS |
Angus JF, Gupta VVSR, Pitson GD, Good AJ (2014) Effects of banded ammonia and urea fertilizer on soil and the growth and yield of wheat. Crop & Pasture Science 65, 337–352.
| Effects of banded ammonia and urea fertilizer on soil and the growth and yield of wheat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXotVKnsbc%3D&md5=1c2de7909b8cf9711d1899b476013393CAS |
Angus JF, Bacon PE, Reinke RF (2016) Temporary immobilisation promotes nitrogen use efficiency of irrigated rice. In ‘Proceedings of the International Nitrogen Initiative Conference, Melbourne, Australia’. (http://ini2016.com/conference-proceedings-2)
Armstrong RD, Halpin NV, McCosker K, Standley J, Lisle AT (1996) Applying nitrogen to grain sorghum in central Queensland: residual value and effect of fallowing and tillage practice. Crop & Pasture Science 47, 81–95.
| Applying nitrogen to grain sorghum in central Queensland: residual value and effect of fallowing and tillage practice.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Armstrong RD, Probert ME, McCosker K, Millar G (1998) Fluxes of nitrogen derived from plant residues and fertiliser on a cracking clay in a semi-arid environment. Crop & Pasture Science 49, 437–449.
| Fluxes of nitrogen derived from plant residues and fertiliser on a cracking clay in a semi-arid environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXisFGqtrs%3D&md5=2dd7d1ed5c9b954c2cc88cf54531323dCAS |
Aryal R, Kandel D, Acharya D, Chong MN, Beecham S (2012) Unusual Sydney dust storm and its mineralogical and organic characteristics. Environmental Chemistry 9, 537–546.
| Unusual Sydney dust storm and its mineralogical and organic characteristics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhvVOqu7rK&md5=814b5f4ef7d40cbf09b81433e42cff55CAS |
Bacon PE, Freney JR (1989) Nitrogen loss from different tillage systems and the effect on cereal grain yield. Fertilizer Research 20, 59–66.
| Nitrogen loss from different tillage systems and the effect on cereal grain yield.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barnes CJ, Jacobsen G, Smith GD (1992) The origin of high-nitrate ground waters in the Australian arid zone. Journal of Hydrology 137, 181–197.
| The origin of high-nitrate ground waters in the Australian arid zone.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK38XlsFOiu7o%3D&md5=d159b22a08d6ab07a25d37cfe74fc832CAS |
Bell MJ (2014) ‘A review of nitrogen use efficiency in sugar cane.’ (Sugar Research Australia Ltd: Brisbane, Queensland) 344 pp.
Bell M, Lester D, De Antoni Migliorati M, Rowlings D, Grace P (2015) Nitrogen use efficiency in summer sorghum grown on clay soils. In ‘Proceedings 17th Australian Society of Agronomy Conference, Hobart, Australia’. (http://www.agronomyaustralia.org/conference-proceedings)
Bell M, Schaffelke B, Moody P, Waters D, Silburn M (2016) Tracking nitrogen from the paddock to the reef- a case study from the Great Barrier Reef. In ‘Proceedings of the International Nitrogen Initiative Conference, Melbourne, Australia’. (http://ini2016.com/conference-proceedings-2).
Burkart MR, James DE (1999) Agricultural-nitrogen contributions to hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico. Journal of Environmental Quality 28, 850–859.
| Agricultural-nitrogen contributions to hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXjt1yltL8%3D&md5=237a8e217b958b45535b41cd34881013CAS |
Burrows ND, Burbidge AA, Fuller PJ, Behn G (2006) Evidence of altered fire regimes in the Western Desert region of Australia. Conservation Science Western Australia 5, 272–284.
Butler Z, Corke P, Peterson R, Rus D (2006) From robots to animals: virtual fences for controlling cattle. The International Journal of Robotics Research 25, 485–508.
| From robots to animals: virtual fences for controlling cattle.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Campbell C, Myers R, Weier K (1981) Potentially mineralizable nitrogen, decomposition rates and their relationship to temperature for five Queensland soils. Australian Journal of Soil Research 19, 323–332.
| Potentially mineralizable nitrogen, decomposition rates and their relationship to temperature for five Queensland soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL38XmslOhsw%3D%3D&md5=0c86c8612458b95ee1604e3131f604c4CAS |
Chen D, Suter H, Islam A, Edis R, Freney JR, Walker CN (2008) Prospects of improving efficiency of fertiliser nitrogen in Australian agriculture: a review of enhanced efficiency fertilisers. Australian Journal of Soil Research 46, 289–301.
| Prospects of improving efficiency of fertiliser nitrogen in Australian agriculture: a review of enhanced efficiency fertilisers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXns1OktLw%3D&md5=42f1e1487aad16b52d011dcc1648f955CAS |
Clarke AL, Russell JS (1977). Crop sequential practices. In ‘Soil factors in crop production in a semi-arid environment’. (Eds JS Russell, EL Greacen) pp. 279–300. (University of Queensland Press: St. Lucia)
Colwell JD, Morton R (1984) Development and evaluation of general or transfer models of relationships between wheat yields and fertilizer rates in southern Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 22, 191–205.
| Development and evaluation of general or transfer models of relationships between wheat yields and fertilizer rates in southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Crockford RH, Khanna PK (1997) Chemistry of throughfall, stemflow and litterfall in fertilized and irrigated Pinus radiata. Hydrological Processes 11, 1493–1507.
| Chemistry of throughfall, stemflow and litterfall in fertilized and irrigated Pinus radiata.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dalal RC (1992) Long term trends in total nitrogen of a vertisol subjected to zero-tillage, nitrogen application and stubble retention. Australian Journal of Soil Research 30, 223–231.
| Long term trends in total nitrogen of a vertisol subjected to zero-tillage, nitrogen application and stubble retention.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK38XitlCmu7w%3D&md5=18ec3a25ac87fa65c3ccad9042e09fc0CAS |
Dalal RC, Mayer RJ (1986) Long-term trends in fertility of soils under continuous cultivation and cereal cropping in southern Queensland. V Rate of loss of total nitrogen from the soil profile and changes in carbon:nitrogen ratios. Australian Journal of Soil Research 24, 493–504.
| Long-term trends in fertility of soils under continuous cultivation and cereal cropping in southern Queensland. V Rate of loss of total nitrogen from the soil profile and changes in carbon:nitrogen ratios.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dalal RC, Thornton CM, Cowie BA (2013) Turnover of organic carbon and nitrogen in soil assessed from δ13C and δ15N changes under pasture and cropping practices and estimates of greenhouse gas emissions. The Science of the Total Environment 465, 26–35.
| Turnover of organic carbon and nitrogen in soil assessed from δ13C and δ15N changes under pasture and cropping practices and estimates of greenhouse gas emissions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXotl2qsL0%3D&md5=a708c29daa2e96855f3c01e0218e34a5CAS |
De Antoni Migliorati M, Bell MJ, Grace PR, Rowlings DW, Scheer C, Strazzabosco A (2014) Assessing agronomic and environmental implications of different N fertilisation strategies in subtropical grain cropping systems on Oxisols. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 100, 369–382.
| Assessing agronomic and environmental implications of different N fertilisation strategies in subtropical grain cropping systems on Oxisols.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Denmead OT (1990) An ammonia budget for Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 49, 511–522.
Denmead OT, Chen D, Rowell D, Loh Z, Hill J, Muir S, Griffith DWT, Naylor T, Bai M, Phillips F, McGinn S (2014) Gaseous nitrogen emissions for Australian cattle feedlots. In ‘Nitrogen deposition, critical loads and biodiversity’. (Eds MA Sutton et al.). pp. 23–29. (Springer: Dordrecht)
Dillon PJ (1988). An evaluation of the sources of nitrate in groundwater near Mount Gambier, South Australia. CSIRO Water Resources Series 1. CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra.
Donald CM (1965) The progress of Australian agriculture and the role of pastures in environmental change. Australian Journal of Science 27, 187–198.
Dunsdorfs E (1956) ‘The Australian wheat-growing industry 1788–1948.’ (Melbourne University Press)
Eckard RJ, Chen D, White RE, Chapman DF (2003) Gaseous nitrogen loss from temperate perennial grass and clover dairy pastures in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 54, 561–570.
| Gaseous nitrogen loss from temperate perennial grass and clover dairy pastures in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
EIA (2017). U.S. Energy Information Agency, http://www.eia.gov.
Evans TA, Dawes TZ, Ward PR, Lo N (2011) Ants and termites increase crop yield in a dry climate. Nature Communications 2, 262
| Ants and termites increase crop yield in a dry climate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fillery IRP (2001) The fate of biologically fixed nitrogen in legume-based dryland farming systems: a review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 41, 361–381.
| The fate of biologically fixed nitrogen in legume-based dryland farming systems: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXkt1Crtro%3D&md5=31cc10957b59d219e2298a2e09024a3aCAS |
Fillery IRP, Khimashia N (2016) Procedure to estimate ammonia loss after N fertiliser application to moist soil. Soil Research 54, 1–10.
| Procedure to estimate ammonia loss after N fertiliser application to moist soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XisVyhtrw%3D&md5=f30a47c00f08d7dbd568b3b36121f190CAS |
Fischer RA, Howe GN, Ibrahim Z (1993) Irrigated spring wheat and timing and amount of nitrogen fertilizer. 1. Grain yield and protein content. Field Crops Research 33, 37–56.
| Irrigated spring wheat and timing and amount of nitrogen fertilizer. 1. Grain yield and protein content.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Freney JR, Smith CJ, Mosier AR (1992) Effect of a new nitrification inhibitor (wax coated calcium carbide) on transformations and recovery of fertilizer nitrogen by irrigated wheat. Fertilizer Research 32, 1–11.
| Effect of a new nitrification inhibitor (wax coated calcium carbide) on transformations and recovery of fertilizer nitrogen by irrigated wheat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK38XmtFWmt7g%3D&md5=539b4053213b299b3644d084299b0435CAS |
Galbally IE, Fraser PJ, Meyer CP, Griffith DWT (1992) Biosphere-atmosphere exchange of trace gasses over Australia. In ‘Australia’s renewable resources: sustainability and global change’. (Eds RM Gifford, MM Barson) pp. 117–149. (Bureau of Rural Resources: Canberra)
Galloway JN, Dentener FJ, Capone DG (2004) Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and future. Biogeochemistry 70, 153–226.
| Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and future.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXpsFShtw%3D%3D&md5=b93c31d62000a8dfda1cd4a63577c7a3CAS |
Gammage B (2011) ‘The biggest estate on earth.’ (Allen and Unwin: Sydney)
Godfray HCJ, Garnett T (2014) Food security and sustainable intensification. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 369, 20120273
| Food security and sustainable intensification.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gourley CJP, Dougherty WJ, Weaver DM, Aarons SR, Awty IM, Gibson DM, Hannah MC, Smith AP, Peverill KI (2012) Farm-scale nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulfur balances and use efficiencies on Australian dairy farms. Animal Production Science 52, 929–944.
| Farm-scale nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulfur balances and use efficiencies on Australian dairy farms.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38Xht1GrsL7O&md5=ab44d1c83380d5bcc1e20b1a3840750fCAS |
Grace P (2015) National coordination of an integrated, data synthesis and modelling network for reducing N2O emissions from Australian soils. Final Report to the Australian Department of Agriculture. Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane.
Grace PR, Oades JM (1994) Long-term field trials in Australia. In ‘Long-term experiments in agricultural and ecological sciences’. (Eds RA Leigh, AE Johnson) pp. 53–81. (CAB International, Wallingford)
Gupta VVSR, Grace P, Roper MM (1994) Carbon and nitrogen mineralization as influenced by long-term soil and crop residue management systems in Australia. In ‘Defining soil quality for a sustainable environment’. (Eds J Doran, D Bezdicek, DC Coleman) pp. 193–200. (Soil Science Society of America Special Publication No. 35: Madison, WI)
Gupta VVSR, Roper MM, Roget DK (2006) Potential for non-symbiotic N2-fixation in different agroecological zones of southern Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 44, 343–354.
| Potential for non-symbiotic N2-fixation in different agroecological zones of southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XmtFKgs7k%3D&md5=839add69e45130a678d06c1ceeee00c6CAS |
Harris GP (2001) Biogeochemistry of nitrogen and phosphorus in Australian catchments, rivers and estuaries: effects of land use and flow regulation and comparisons with global patterns. Marine and Freshwater Research 52, 139–149.
| Biogeochemistry of nitrogen and phosphorus in Australian catchments, rivers and estuaries: effects of land use and flow regulation and comparisons with global patterns.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXht1Sjtb0%3D&md5=4684f6954909d2dca2d5655b1048fff3CAS |
Harris R, Armstrong R, Wallace A (2015) Recovery of 15N urea fertiliser applied to wheat under different management strategies in the High Rainfall Zone of south western Victoria. In ‘Proceedings 17th Australian Society of Agronomy Conference, Hobart, Australia’ (http://www.agronomyaustralia.org/conference-proceedings)
Heenan DP, Chan KY, Knight PG (2004) Long-term impact of rotation, tillage and stubble management on the loss of soil organic carbon and nitrogen from a Chromic Luvisol. Soil & Tillage Research 76, 59–68.
| Long-term impact of rotation, tillage and stubble management on the loss of soil organic carbon and nitrogen from a Chromic Luvisol.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Helyar KR, Porter WM (1989) Soil acidification, its measurement and the processes involved. In ‘Soil acidity and plant growth’. (Ed. AD Robson) pp. 61–101. (Academic Press: Sydney)
Helyar KR, Cullis BR, Furniss K, Kohn GD, Taylor AC (1997) Changes in the acidity and fertility of a red earth soil under wheat-annual pasture rotations. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 48, 561–586.
| Changes in the acidity and fertility of a red earth soil under wheat-annual pasture rotations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Henzell T (2007) ‘Australian agriculture: its history and challenges.’ (CSIRO: Collingwood)
Hochman Z, Gobbett DL, Horan H (2017) Climate trends account for stalled what yields in Australia since 1990. Global Change Biology
| Climate trends account for stalled what yields in Australia since 1990.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hunt JR, Kirkegaard JA (2011) Re-evaluating the contribution of summer fallow rain to wheat yield in southern Australia. Crop & Pasture Science 62, 915–929.
| Re-evaluating the contribution of summer fallow rain to wheat yield in southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hunt JR, Swan AD, Breust PD, Peoples MB, Kirkegaard JA (2016) Sheep grazing on crop residues increase soil mineral N and grain N uptake in subsequent wheat crops. In ‘Proceedings of the International Nitrogen Initiative Conference, Melbourne, Australia’. (http://ini2016.com/conference-proceedings-2).
Jaeglé L, Steinberger L, Martin RV, Chance K (2005) Global partitioning of NOx sources using satellite observations: relative roles of fossil fuel combustion, biomass burning and soil emissions. Faraday Discussions 130, 407–423.
| Global partitioning of NOx sources using satellite observations: relative roles of fossil fuel combustion, biomass burning and soil emissions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Jenkinson DS (2001) Nitrogen in a global perspective, with focus on temperate areas — state of the art and global perspectives. Plant and Soil 228, 3–15.
| Nitrogen in a global perspective, with focus on temperate areas — state of the art and global perspectives.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXhtlWktbc%3D&md5=2f1d568ea2ba008e3e9342aa4bdac818CAS |
Jenny H (1941) ‘Factors in soil formation.’ (McGraw-Hill: New York)
Kirkby CA, Richardson AE, Wade LJ, Conyers M, Kirkegaard JA (2016) Inorganic nutrients increase humification efficiency and C-sequestration in an annually cropped soil. PLoS One 11, e0153698
| Inorganic nutrients increase humification efficiency and C-sequestration in an annually cropped soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkegaard JA, Peoples MB, Angus JF, Unkovich MJ (2011) Diversity and evolution of rainfed farming systems in southern Australia. In ‘Rainfed farming systems’. (Eds P Tow, I Cooper, I Partridge, C Birch) pp. 715–754. (Springer: Dordrecht)
Kroon FJ, Thorburn P, Shaffelke B, Whitten S (2016) Towards protecting the Great Barrier Reef from land-based pollution. Global Change Biology 22, 1985–2002.
| Towards protecting the Great Barrier Reef from land-based pollution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ladd JN, Russell JS (1983) Soil nitrogen. In ‘Soils: an Australian viewpoint’. pp. 589–607. (CSIRO: Melbourne and Academic Press: London)
Lam SK, Chen D, Norton R, Armstrong R (2012) Nitrogen demand and the recovery of 15N-labelled fertilizer in wheat grown under elevated carbon dioxide in southern Australia. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 92, 133–144.
| Nitrogen demand and the recovery of 15N-labelled fertilizer in wheat grown under elevated carbon dioxide in southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XisFGnsLg%3D&md5=0a74c10a62687895e85f2ca0dbe76bf0CAS |
Lester DW, Bell MJ, Bell KL, Migliorati MDA, Scheer C, Rowlings D, Grace PR (2016) Agronomic responses of grain sorghum to DMPP-treated urea on contrasting soil types in north-eastern Australia. Soil Research 54, 565–571.
| Agronomic responses of grain sorghum to DMPP-treated urea on contrasting soil types in north-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhtlejtL%2FN&md5=23857599358990b134710603f025d2c5CAS |
Llewellyn RS, D’Emden FH, Kuehne G (2012) Extensive use of no-tillage in grain growing regions of Australia. Field Crops Research 132, 204–212.
| Extensive use of no-tillage in grain growing regions of Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Macdonald BCT, Chang YF, Nadelko A, Tuomi S, Glover M (2017) Tracking fertiliser and soil nitrogen in irrigated cotton: uptake, losses and the soil N stock. Soil Research 55, 264–272.
| Tracking fertiliser and soil nitrogen in irrigated cotton: uptake, losses and the soil N stock.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2sXlsVWntrs%3D&md5=13f6cfc88e623c02a201b59cf8d41f03CAS |
MacEwan RJ, Crawford DM, Newton PJ, Clune TS (2010) High clay contents, dense soils, and spatial variability are the principal subsoil constraints to cropping the higher rainfall land in south-eastern Australia. Soil Research 48, 150–166.
| High clay contents, dense soils, and spatial variability are the principal subsoil constraints to cropping the higher rainfall land in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXktVShu7c%3D&md5=840a86b482e9c0ad59c9d18700ddaa73CAS |
Mathers NJ, Nash M, Gangaiya P (2007) Nitrogen and phosphorus exports from high rainfall zone cropping in Australia: Issues and opportunities for research. Journal of Environmental Quality 36, 1551–1562.
| Nitrogen and phosphorus exports from high rainfall zone cropping in Australia: Issues and opportunities for research.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhtlKqtLrI&md5=c22fd3a03fe8a44941e1f985ca13cd2aCAS |
McDonald GK (1989) The contribution of nitrogen fertiliser to the nitrogen nutrition of rainfed wheat crops in Australia: a review. Animal Production Science 29, 455–481.
| The contribution of nitrogen fertiliser to the nitrogen nutrition of rainfed wheat crops in Australia: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McKenzie N, Jacquier D, Isbell R, Brown K (2004) ‘Australian soils and landscapes.’ (CSIRO: Canberra)
McLaughlin MJ, Fillery IR, Till AR (1992) Operation of the phosphorus, sulphur and nitrogen cycles. In ‘Australia’s renewable resources: sustainability and global change’. (Eds RM Gifford, MM Barson) pp. 67–116. (Bureau of Rural Resources: Canberra)
McTainsh G, Chan Y, McGowan H, Leys J, Tews K (2005) The 23rd October 2002 dust storm in eastern Australia: characteristics and meteorological conditions. Atmospheric Environment 39, 1227–1236.
| The 23rd October 2002 dust storm in eastern Australia: characteristics and meteorological conditions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhsVGhu78%3D&md5=4a5ff1c1e9fc382740a38246b6e3654eCAS |
Mielenz H, Thorburn PJ, Harris RH, Grace PR, Officer SJ (2017) Mitigating N2O emissions from cropping systems after conversion from pasture − a modelling approach. European Journal of Agronomy 82, 254–267.
| Mitigating N2O emissions from cropping systems after conversion from pasture − a modelling approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhtFenurbJ&md5=77f744255957e4371adefcffaa6ed4e4CAS |
Milroy SP, Asseng S, Poole ML (2008) Systems analysis of wheat production in low water-holding soils in a Mediterranean environment II. Drainage and nitrate leaching. Field Crops Research 107, 211–220.
| Systems analysis of wheat production in low water-holding soils in a Mediterranean environment II. Drainage and nitrate leaching.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Myers RJK (1984) A simple method for estimating the nitrogen fertiliser requirement of a cereal crop. Fertilizer Research 5, 95–108.
| A simple method for estimating the nitrogen fertiliser requirement of a cereal crop.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Myrold DD, Bottomley PJ (2008). Nitrogen mineralization and immobilization. In ‘Nitrogen in agricultural systems’. (Eds JS Schepers, WR Raun) pp. 157–172. (American Society of Agronomy: Madison WI)
Norton R, Walker C, Farlow C (2015) Nitrogen removal and use on a long-term fertilizer experiment. In ‘Proceedings 17th Australian Agronomy Conference, Hobart’. (http://www.agronomyaustralia.org/conference-proceedings)
Peoples MB, Brockwell J, Hunt JR, Swan AD, Watson L, Hayes RC, Li GD, Hackney B, Nuttall JG, Davies SL, Fillery IRP (2012) Factors affecting the potential contributions of N2 fixation by legumes in Australian pasture systems. Crop & Pasture Science 63, 759–786.
| Factors affecting the potential contributions of N2 fixation by legumes in Australian pasture systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhvVSkt7jE&md5=4cf90a77e36288bfc39626ab0e04a5f3CAS |
Peoples MB, Swan AD, Goward L, Kirkegaard JA, Hunt JR, Li GD, Schwenke GD, Herridge DF, Moodie M, Wilhelm N, Potter T, Denton MD, Browne C, Phillips LA, Khan DF (2017) Soil mineral nitrogen benefits derived from legumes and comparisons of the apparent recovery of legume or fertiliser nitrogen by wheat. Soil Research 55,
| Soil mineral nitrogen benefits derived from legumes and comparisons of the apparent recovery of legume or fertiliser nitrogen by wheat.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pu G, Saffigna PG, Strong WM (1999) Potential for denitrification in cereal soils of northern Australia after legume or grass-legume pastures. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 31, 667–675.
| Potential for denitrification in cereal soils of northern Australia after legume or grass-legume pastures.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXjs1Citr4%3D&md5=41988982cf8486de3923d6059d69eb6eCAS |
Pilbeam CJ (1996) Effect of climate on the recovery in crop and soil of 15N-labelled fertilizer applied to soil. Fertilizer Research 45, 209–215.
| Effect of climate on the recovery in crop and soil of 15N-labelled fertilizer applied to soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
PMSEIC (2010) Australia and food security in a changing world. (Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation Council, Canberra). www.chiefscientist.gov.au
Poss R, Smith CJ, Dunin FX, Angus JF (1995) Rate of soil acidification under wheat in a semi-arid environment. Plant and Soil 177, 85–100.
| Rate of soil acidification under wheat in a semi-arid environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK28XhtlKgur4%3D&md5=e1ccebbec874748fd5044f343372278eCAS |
Rasiah V, Armour JF, Menzies NW, Heiner DH, Donn MJ, Mahendrarajah S (2003) Nitrate retention under sugarcane in wet tropical Queensland deep soil profiles. Australian Journal of Soil Research 41, 1145–1161.
| Nitrate retention under sugarcane in wet tropical Queensland deep soil profiles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXot1Cgsbc%3D&md5=7b5cc781e6ef653e34cabbc987c5e054CAS |
Ridley AM, White RE, Helyar KR, Morrison GR, Heng LK, Fisher R (2001) Nitrate leaching loss under annual and perennial pastures with and without lime on a duplex (texture contrast) soil in southeastern Australia. European Journal of Soil Science 52, 237–252.
| Nitrate leaching loss under annual and perennial pastures with and without lime on a duplex (texture contrast) soil in southeastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXltVKku7w%3D&md5=39f108844ad9a1b206be711683421629CAS |
Ridley AM, Mele PM, Beverly CR (2004) Legume-based farming in Southern Australia: developing sustainable systems to meet environmental challenges. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 36, 1213–1221.
| Legume-based farming in Southern Australia: developing sustainable systems to meet environmental challenges.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXls1Wmsbg%3D&md5=f1f31b77e11371202141985767e43cb0CAS |
Roberts AM, Pannell DJ, Doole G, Vigiak O (2012) Agricultural land management strategies to reduce phosphorus loads in the Gippsland Lakes, Australia. Agricultural Systems 106, 11–22.
| Agricultural land management strategies to reduce phosphorus loads in the Gippsland Lakes, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Robertson FA, Myers RJK, Saffigna PG (1997) Nitrogen cycling in brigalow clay soils under pasture and cropping. Australian Journal of Soil Research 35, 1323–1340.
| Nitrogen cycling in brigalow clay soils under pasture and cropping.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXnsVehtr8%3D&md5=8b283ac3833064c3fc5e34379f730844CAS |
Rochester IJ, Bange M (2016) Nitrogen fertiliser requirements of high-yielding irrigated transgenic cotton. Crop & Pasture Science 67, 641–648.
| Nitrogen fertiliser requirements of high-yielding irrigated transgenic cotton.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhtVKisr%2FN&md5=7a9ed93806253bb89b6ab7e4b4021e43CAS |
Rowlings DW, Scheer C, Liu S, Grace PR (2016) Annual nitrogen dynamics and urea fertilizer recoveries from a dairy pasture using 15N; effect of nitrification inhibitor DMPP and reduced application rates. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 216, 216–225.
| Annual nitrogen dynamics and urea fertilizer recoveries from a dairy pasture using 15N; effect of nitrification inhibitor DMPP and reduced application rates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXhs1yjtb7K&md5=4a2a925de43807803085b965763b147aCAS |
Russell JS (1981) Models of long term organic nitrogen change. In ‘Simulation of nitrogen behaviour of soil-plant systems’. (Eds MJ Frissel, JA van Veen) pp. 222–232. (PUDOC: Wageningen)
Ryan MH, Kirkegaard JA, Angus JF (2006) Brassica crops stimulate soil mineral N accumulation. Australian Journal of Soil Research 44, 367–377.
| Brassica crops stimulate soil mineral N accumulation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XmtFKgsLw%3D&md5=8a92489a679a4d4aa854fc93b880bbd6CAS |
Sadras VO, Angus JF (2006) Benchmarking water use efficiency of rainfed wheat crops in dry mega-environments. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 57, 847–856.
| Benchmarking water use efficiency of rainfed wheat crops in dry mega-environments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sandral GA, Tavakkoli E, Harris F, Koetz E, Angus J (in press) Improving nitrogen fertiliser use efficiency in wheat using mid-row banding. In ‘Proceedings 18th Australian Society of Agronomy Conference, Ballarat, Australia’. (http://www.agronomyaustralia.org/conference-proceedings)
Schimel DS (1986) Carbon and nitrogen turnover in adjacent grassland and cropland ecosystems. Biogeochemistry 2, 345–357.
| Carbon and nitrogen turnover in adjacent grassland and cropland ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXhtlOntbw%3D&md5=dcb571144fd05ce439ad5959f2062db5CAS |
Schwenke G, Haigh B (2016) The interaction of seasonal rainfall and nitrogen fertiliser rate on soil N2O emission, total N loss and crop yield of dryland sorghum and sunflower grown on sub-tropical Vertosols. Soil Research 54, 604–618.
| The interaction of seasonal rainfall and nitrogen fertiliser rate on soil N2O emission, total N loss and crop yield of dryland sorghum and sunflower grown on sub-tropical Vertosols.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhtlejtLzN&md5=2a68a17fde7fbc868bdd4e9fced10b71CAS |
Smil V (2001) ‘Enriching the earth.’ (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA)
Smith CJ, Whitfield DM, Gyles OA, Wright GC (1989) Nitrogen fertilizer balance of irrigated wheat grown on a red-brown earth in southeastern Australia. Field Crops Research 21, 265–275.
| Nitrogen fertilizer balance of irrigated wheat grown on a red-brown earth in southeastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Solomon D, Lehmann J, Zech W (2000) Land use effects on soil organic matter properties of chromic luvisols in semi-arid northern Tanzania: carbon, nitrogen, lignin and carbohydrates. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 78, 203–213.
| Land use effects on soil organic matter properties of chromic luvisols in semi-arid northern Tanzania: carbon, nitrogen, lignin and carbohydrates.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXhsFOitbw%3D&md5=bbe44a021f4dbe553059a23f69b904ceCAS |
Stace HCT, Hubble GD, Brewer R, Northcote KH, Sleeman JR, Mulcahy MJ, Hallsworth EG (1968) ‘A handbook of Australian soils.’ (Rellim: Glenside, South Australia)
Stott KJ, Gourley CJ (2016) Intensification, nitrogen use and recovery in grazing-based dairy systems. Agricultural Systems 144, 101–112.
| Intensification, nitrogen use and recovery in grazing-based dairy systems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thorburn PJ, Wilkinson SN (2013) Conceptual frameworks for estimating the water quality benefits of improved agricultural management practices in large catchments. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 180, 192–209.
| Conceptual frameworks for estimating the water quality benefits of improved agricultural management practices in large catchments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Thorburn PJ, Biggs JS, Weier KL, Keating BA (2003) Nitrate in groundwaters of intensive agricultural areas in coastal northeastern Australia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 94, 49–58.
| Nitrate in groundwaters of intensive agricultural areas in coastal northeastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XptFGqsrc%3D&md5=155440eca46d9d6317558321071ee043CAS |
Turner DA, Edis RE, Chen D, Freney JR, Denmead OT (2012) Ammonia volatilisation from nitrogen fertilizers in two cropping areas of southern Australia. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 93, 113–126.
| Ammonia volatilisation from nitrogen fertilizers in two cropping areas of southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XpvVyqtb8%3D&md5=6eb4d95e14fb1562f205e4e7e7f07675CAS |
Turpin JE, Thompson JP, Waring SA, MacKenzie J (1998) Nitrate and chloride leaching in Vertosols for different tillage and stubble practices in fallow-grain cropping. Australian Journal of Soil Research 36, 31–44.
| Nitrate and chloride leaching in Vertosols for different tillage and stubble practices in fallow-grain cropping.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
van Herwaarden AF, Farquhar GD, Angus JF, Richards RA, Howe GN (1998) ‘Haying-off’, the negative grain yield response of dryland wheat to nitrogen fertiliser I. Biomass, grain yield, and water use. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 49, 1067–1081.
| ‘Haying-off’, the negative grain yield response of dryland wheat to nitrogen fertiliser I. Biomass, grain yield, and water use.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Virgona JM, Gummer FAJ, Angus JF (2006) Effects of grazing on wheat growth, yield, development, water use and nitrogen use. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 57, 1307–1319.
| Effects of grazing on wheat growth, yield, development, water use and nitrogen use.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wallace A, Armstrong R, Harris R, Belyaeva O, Grace P, Scheer C (2016) Nitrous oxide emissions from wheat grown in a medium rainfall environment in Se Australia are low compared to overall nitrogen losses. In ‘Proceedings of the International Nitrogen Initiative Conference, Melbourne, Australia’. (http://ini2016.com/conference-proceedings-2)
Weaver TB, Hulugalle NR, Ghadiri H, Harden S (2013) Quality of drainage water under irrigated conditions of vertisols of the lower Namoi Valley, New South Wales, Australia. Irrigation and Drainage 62, 107–114.
| Quality of drainage water under irrigated conditions of vertisols of the lower Namoi Valley, New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wetselaar R, Hutton JT (1963) The ionic composition of rainwater at Katherine NT, and its part in the cycling of plant nutrients. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 14, 319–329.
| The ionic composition of rainwater at Katherine NT, and its part in the cycling of plant nutrients.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaF3sXksFyhsbk%3D&md5=d16b35334f3cbbad24d158f721cdb61fCAS |
Wetselaar R, Passioura JB, Rose DA, Jakobsen P (1973) Banding nitrogen fertilizers in soil: principles and practice. Chimie & Industrie – Genie Chimeque 106, 567–572.
Wichern F, Eberhardt E, Mayer J, Joergensen RG, Müller T (2008) Nitrogen rhizodeposition in agricultural crops: Methods, estimates and future prospects. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 40, 30–48.
| Nitrogen rhizodeposition in agricultural crops: Methods, estimates and future prospects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhtF2iu7bJ&md5=3d282927343ee5ffc7feec3809646e42CAS |
