Changes in characteristics of soils irrigated with processing wastewater from three New Zealand dairy factories
G. P. Sparling A F , R. Littler B , L. A. Schipper A , B. Stevenson C , L. Sherman D and J. M. Russell E
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A School of Science, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand.
B Waikato Applied Statistics Unit, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand.
C Landcare Research, PO Box 3127, Hamilton, New Zealand.
D Fonterra Limited, 520 Awakeri Road, Edgecumbe, New Zealand.
E Fonterra Limited, Private Bag 11029, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
F Corresponding author. Email: sparling@waikato.ac.nz
Soil Research 53(4) 448-460 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR14365
Submitted: 11 December 2014 Accepted: 3 February 2015 Published: 30 June 2015
Abstract
Application to land is the preferred method for the treatment of wastewaters in New Zealand. For land treatment to be effective, it is essential that the soils can accept the volumes of wastewater applied and degrade or store the constituents in the wastewater. We report on 14 soil chemical, biochemical and physical characteristics of soils (0–10 cm depth) used for wastewater treatment at the Fonterra dairy factories at Hautapu, Lichfield and Edgecumbe in the North Island of New Zealand. The soils are under grazed pasture for dairying and receive wastewater by spray irrigation. The soils were monitored approximately every 2 years between 1995 and 2005 and at the end of monitoring had been under irrigation for 10–26 years. Matched, non-irrigated pasture soils on adjacent dairy farms were sampled for comparison.
The wastewater composition from the three factories differed, reflecting the products manufactured. Loadings were greatest at the Hautapu factory, which also had the longest history of irrigation (26 years). At all three sites, the physical characteristics of irrigated soils were very similar to their non-irrigated comparisons. A consistent trend was for microbial mass and activity, and particularly nitrogen (N) turnover, to be markedly greater on the irrigated soils. The C (carbon) : N ratios of irrigated and non-irrigated soils at Lichfield and Edgecumbe were similar, but at Hautapu the C : N ratio of irrigated soil was 8.3 and significantly (P < 0.05) lower than non-irrigated soil (11.1), suggesting little further capacity to store additional N as organic matter. Irrigation tended to increase the soil pH at all sites to above neutral even though the wastewater was acidic. We consider that the characteristics of irrigated soils at Edgecumbe and Lichfield factories are generally satisfactory. Fonterra is continuing to reduce loadings in both composition and volumes of wastewater irrigated.
Additional keywords: biochemical indices, dairy factory, effluent, land treatment, soil monitoring, soil storage of N, water quality.
References
American Public Health Association (APHA) (2006) ‘Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater.’ American Water Works Association and Water Environment Federation (1995). (Eds AD Eaton, LS Clesceri, AE Greenberg) (American Public Health Association: Washington, DC) www.standardmethods.org/Balks MR, McLay CDA, Harfoot CGM (1997) Determination of the progression in soil microbial response, and changes in soil permeability, following application of meat processing effluent to soil. Applied Soil Ecology 6, 109–116.
| Determination of the progression in soil microbial response, and changes in soil permeability, following application of meat processing effluent to soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Barkle GF, Stenger R, Singleton PL, Painter DJ (2000) Effect of regular irrigation with dairy farm effluent on soil organic matter and soil microbial biomass. Australian Journal of Soil Research 38, 1087–1097.
| Effect of regular irrigation with dairy farm effluent on soil organic matter and soil microbial biomass.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXot1Wjs7s%3D&md5=6b556ea5ca71b033d065affb49bf0dd0CAS |
Batjes NH (1996) Total carbon and nitrogen in soils of the world. European Journal of Soil Science 47, 151–163.
| Total carbon and nitrogen in soils of the world.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK28XlslKnsLo%3D&md5=a2786e895c293a9042a089ab19c1262aCAS |
Blakemore LC, Searle PL, Daly BK (1987) ‘Methods for chemical analysis of soils.’ New Zealand Soil Bureau Scientific Report No. 80. (DSIR Soil Bureau: Lower Hutt, NZ)
Cameron KC, Di HJ, McLaren RG (1997) Is soil an appropriate dumping ground for our wastes? Australian Journal of Soil Research 35, 995–1035.
| Is soil an appropriate dumping ground for our wastes?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cameron KC, Di HJ, Anwar MR, Russell JM, Barnett JW (2003) The ‘critical’ ESP value. Does it change with land application of dairy factory effluent? New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 46, 147–154.
| The ‘critical’ ESP value. Does it change with land application of dairy factory effluent?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cichota R, Snow VO, Vogeler I (2013) Modelling nitrogen leaching from overlapping urine patches. Environmental Modelling & Software 41, 15–26.
| Modelling nitrogen leaching from overlapping urine patches.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Claydon JJ (1989) ‘Determination of particle-size distribution in fine grained soils—pipette method.’ Division of Land and Soil Sciences Technical Record LH5. (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research: Lower Hutt, NZ)
Cook FJ, Lilley GP, Nunns RA (1993) Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and sorptivity: laboratory measurement. In ‘Soil sampling methods of analysis’. (Ed. MR Carter) pp. 615–624. (Lewis Publishers: Boca Raton, FL, USA)
Davis MR, Condron LM (2002) Impact of grassland afforestation on soil carbon in New Zealand. Australian Journal of Soil Research 40, 675–690.
| Impact of grassland afforestation on soil carbon in New Zealand.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
de Klein CAM, Ledgard SF (2001) An analysis of environmental and economic implications of nil and restricted grazing systems designed to reduce nitrate leaching from New Zealand dairy farms. 1. Nitrogen losses. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 44, 201–215.
| An analysis of environmental and economic implications of nil and restricted grazing systems designed to reduce nitrate leaching from New Zealand dairy farms. 1. Nitrogen losses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Degens BP, Schipper LA, Claydon JJ, Russell JM, Yeates GW (2000) Irrigation of an allophanic soil with dairy factory effluent for 22 years: responses of nutrient storage and soil biota. Australian Journal of Soil Research 38, 25–35.
| Irrigation of an allophanic soil with dairy factory effluent for 22 years: responses of nutrient storage and soil biota.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Di HJ, Cameron KC (2002) Nitrate leaching and pasture production from different nitrogen sources on a shallow stoney soil under flood irrigated dairy pasture. Australian Journal of Soil Research 40, 317–334.
| Nitrate leaching and pasture production from different nitrogen sources on a shallow stoney soil under flood irrigated dairy pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XjtFyqsrk%3D&md5=bf928744bf2f1079a712b4b99c316f6bCAS |
Drewry JJ, Cameron KC, Buchan GD (2001) Effect of simulated cow treading on soil physical properties and ryegrass pasture yield. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 44, 181–190.
| Effect of simulated cow treading on soil physical properties and ryegrass pasture yield.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Genstat (2012) ‘Genstat version 15.’ (VSN International: Hemel Hempstead, UK) www.vsni.co.uk/
Giltrap D, Hewitt AE (2004) Spatial variability of soil quality indicators in New Zealand soils and land uses. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 47, 167–177.
| Spatial variability of soil quality indicators in New Zealand soils and land uses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXmsl2ktL4%3D&md5=45272876ba71f90ba2cfa73a59127274CAS |
Gradwell MW, Birrell KS (1979) ‘Methods for physical analysis of soils.’ New Zealand Soil Bureau Scientific Report 10C. (DSIR Soil Bureau: Lower Hutt, NZ)
Hawke RM, Summers SA (2006) Effects of land application of farm dairy effluent on soil properties: a literature review. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 49, 307–320.
| Effects of land application of farm dairy effluent on soil properties: a literature review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Haynes RJ, Williams PH (1993) Nutrient cycling and soil fertility in the grazed pasture ecosystem. Advances in Agronomy 49, 119–199.
Hewitt AE (2010) ‘New Zealand Soil Classification.’ 3rd edn, p. 136. (Landcare Research: Lincoln, NZ)
Insam H, Domsch KH (1988) Relationship between soil organic carbon and microbial biomass on chronosequences of reclamation sites. Microbial Ecology 15, 177–188.
| Relationship between soil organic carbon and microbial biomass on chronosequences of reclamation sites.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC2c7ktVCktA%3D%3D&md5=834503e2e160966210192ce1592a04f9CAS | 24202999PubMed |
Insam H, Haselwandter K (1989) Metabolic quotient of the soil microflora in relation to plant succession. Oecologia 79, 174–178.
| Metabolic quotient of the soil microflora in relation to plant succession.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keeney DR (1982) Nitrogen-availability indices. In ‘Methods of soil and plant analysis—Part 2: Chemical and microbiological properties’. 2nd edn (Ed. AL Page) pp. 711–735. (American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, USA)
Klute A (1986) Water retention: laboratory methods. In ‘Methods of soil analysis. Part 1’. 2nd edn (Ed. A Klute) pp. 635–662. (American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, USA)
Landcare Research (2015) S-map online. Landcare Research New Zealand Limited. Available at: www.Smap.landcareresearch.co.nz/factsheet.
Lieffering RE, McLay CDA (1996) The effect of strong hydroxide solutions on the stability of aggregates and hydraulic conductivity of soil. European Journal of Soil Science 47, 43–50.
| The effect of strong hydroxide solutions on the stability of aggregates and hydraulic conductivity of soil.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK28XjsVemsrg%3D&md5=5807b16da97c9b14488533b61fc635aeCAS |
Liu Y-Y, Haynes RJ (2011a) Origin, nature and treatment of effluents from dairy and meat processing factories and the effects of their irrigation on the quality of agricultural soils. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 41, 1531–1599.
| Origin, nature and treatment of effluents from dairy and meat processing factories and the effects of their irrigation on the quality of agricultural soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXptVams70%3D&md5=242750053b6bc3b2623483b34817f10fCAS |
Liu Y-Y, Haynes RJ (2011b) Influence of land application of dairy factory effluent on soil nutrient status and the size, activity, composition and catabolic capability of the soil microbial community. Applied Soil Ecology 48, 133–141.
| Influence of land application of dairy factory effluent on soil nutrient status and the size, activity, composition and catabolic capability of the soil microbial community.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ministry of Primary Industries (2013) Dairy. Ministry of Primary Industries. Available at: www.mpi.govt.nz/agriculture/pastoral/dairy (accessed 5 June 2013).
Powlson DS, Brookes PC, Christensen BT (1987) Measurement of soil microbial biomass provides an early indication of changes in total soil organic matter due to straw incorporation. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 19, 159–164.
| Measurement of soil microbial biomass provides an early indication of changes in total soil organic matter due to straw incorporation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL2sXktlyls7w%3D&md5=cca508290a4cd8af3e05132870f97ad3CAS |
Ross DJ, Tate KR, Cairns A, Meyrick KF, Pansier EA (1982) Effects of slaughterhouse effluent and water on biochemical properties of two seasonally dry soils under pasture. New Zealand Journal of Science 25, 341–349.
Schilling C, Zuccollo T, Nixon T (2010) Dairy’s role in sustaining New Zealand—the sectors contribution to the economy. Report to Fonterra and DairyNZ. NZIER. Available at: www.mpi.govt.nz/agriculture/pastoral/dairy.
Schipper LA, Sparling GP (2000) Performance of soil condition indicators across taxonomic groups and land uses. Soil Science Society of America Journal 64, 300–311.
| Performance of soil condition indicators across taxonomic groups and land uses.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXmslyhtLg%3D&md5=313a2ef4e1c7494e9703785152cc0d10CAS |
Schipper LA, Williamson JC, Kettles HA, Speir TW (1996) Impact of land-applied tertiary-treated effluent on soil biochemical properties. Journal of Environmental Quality 25, 1073–1077.
| Impact of land-applied tertiary-treated effluent on soil biochemical properties.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK28XlvV2gu7o%3D&md5=ae93e4c4acda2265d909fff1fb0cc349CAS |
Schipper LA, Percival HJ, Sparling GP (2004) An approach for estimating when soils will reach maximum nitrogen storage. Soil Use and Management 20, 281–286.
| An approach for estimating when soils will reach maximum nitrogen storage.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Schmidt EL, Belser LW (1982) Nitrifying bacteria. In ‘Methods of soil and plant analysis—part 2. Chemical and microbiological properties’. 2nd edn (Ed. AL Page) pp. 1027–1043. (American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, USA)
Selvarajah N (1996) Determination of sustainable nitrogen loading rates for land treatment systems without adequate soil and ground water information: Dairy farm effluent application onto grazed pasture in the Waikato region. In ‘Recent developments in understanding chemical movements in soil’. Fertiliser and Lime Research Centre, Occasional Report No. 9. (Eds LD Currie, P Loganathan) (Massey University: Palmerston North, NZ)
Selvarajah N, Maggs GR, Crush JR, Ledgard SF (1994) Nitrate in ground water in the Waikato region. In ‘The efficient use of fertilizers in a changing environment: reconciling productivity with sustainability’. Fertiliser and Lime Research Centre, Occasional Report No. 7. (Eds LD Currie, P Loganathan) pp. 160–185. (Massey University: Palmerston North, NZ)
Soil Survey Staff (2010) ‘Keys to Soil Taxonomy.’ 11th edn (USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service: Washington, DC)
Sparling GP (1992) Ratio of microbial biomass carbon to soil organic carbon as a sensitive indicator of changes in soil organic matter. Australian Journal of Soil Research 30, 195–207.
| Ratio of microbial biomass carbon to soil organic carbon as a sensitive indicator of changes in soil organic matter.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK38XitlCms7g%3D&md5=5b0f62193b3002a0118216e01aa39313CAS |
Sparling GP, Schipper LA (2004) Soil quality monitoring in New Zealand: trends and issues arising from a broad-scale survey. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 104, 545–552.
| Soil quality monitoring in New Zealand: trends and issues arising from a broad-scale survey.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXhtVakt7rM&md5=e570858930029fd2681e31a5745f1f31CAS |
Sparling GP, Zhu C (1993) Evaluation and calibration of methods to measure microbial biomass C and N in soils from Western Australia. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 25, 1793–1801.
| Evaluation and calibration of methods to measure microbial biomass C and N in soils from Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sparling GP, Schipper LA, Russell JM (2001) Changes in soil properties after long-term irrigation of dairy factory effluent to New Zealand volcanic ash and pumice soils. Australian Journal of Soil Research 39, 505–518.
| Changes in soil properties after long-term irrigation of dairy factory effluent to New Zealand volcanic ash and pumice soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXks1KqtLw%3D&md5=a951ab47b8fce2c066ff04ac89b57ac8CAS |
Speir TW (2002) Soil biochemical properties as indices of performance and sustainability of effluent irrigation systems in New Zealand—A review. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 32, 535–553.
| Soil biochemical properties as indices of performance and sustainability of effluent irrigation systems in New Zealand—A review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tiedje JM, Simkins S, Groffman PM (1989) Perspectives on measurement of denitrification in the field, including recommended protocols for acetylene-based methods. Plant and Soil 115, 261–284.
| Perspectives on measurement of denitrification in the field, including recommended protocols for acetylene-based methods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vance ED, Brookes PC, Jenkinson DS (1987) An extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass C. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 19, 703–707.
| An extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass C.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL1cXjs1KqsA%3D%3D&md5=a04af64bf18159f8a6f651b3f2a345d2CAS |
Wu J, Joergensen RG, Pommeraning B, Chaussod R, Brookes PC (1990) Measurements of soil microbial biomass C by fumigation-extraction—an automated procedure. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 22, 1167–1169.
| Measurements of soil microbial biomass C by fumigation-extraction—an automated procedure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXitVGqt7o%3D&md5=715c016f889ae65edc4e513683d82f35CAS |
