Complexities in developing Australian Aboriginal enterprises based on natural resources
Julian T. Gorman A E , Melissa Bentivoglio B , Chris Brady C , Penelope Wurm A , Sivaram Vemuri A and Yasmina Sultanbawa D
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, NT 0909, Australia.
B Thamarrurr Development Corporation, PO Box 36839, Winnellie, NT 0821, Australia.
C Northern Land Council, Darwin, 45 Mitchell Street, NT 0801, Australia.
D Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, PO Box 156, Archerfield, Brisbane, Qld 4108, Australia.
E Corresponding author. Email: Julian.Gorman@cdu.edu.au
The Rangeland Journal 42(2) 113-128 https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ20010
Submitted: 26 February 2020 Accepted: 27 May 2020 Published: 13 June 2020
Abstract
Across the world’s rangelands, livelihoods of millions of people are dependent on customary and commercial use of wildlife. Many Australian Aboriginal communities also aspire towards developing natural resource-based enterprises but there is a unique combination of historical, legislative and cultural factors that make this process complex. Typically, government support for Indigenous enterprise development has focussed largely on development of ‘social enterprise’, with subsidies coming from various government community development programs. This has resulted in some increase in participation and employment, but often inadequate attention to economic aspects of enterprise development leading to low levels of business success. This paper will examine historical, legislative and institutional dimensions in business development in Aboriginal communities. It does this through a case study of business enterprise development of the Kakadu Plum products by the Indigenous people of the Thamarrurr Region of the Northern Territory, Australia, using a participant observation research method. We found that attention on important economic criteria was subsumed by a focus on social enterprise priorities during the development of this natural resource-based enterprise. This resulted in a very slow transition of the ‘social enterprise’ to the ‘financial enterprise’, due largely to fragmented business decisions and inefficient value chains. We call for a refocus of natural resource-based enterprise development programs in remote Australian Aboriginal townships to incorporate greater emphasis on business acumen within the complex social, cultural and political fabric.
Additional keywords: Aboriginal, business acumen, education enterprise, natural resources, subsidy.
References
AIATSIS (Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island Studies) (2019). Remembering Mission Days. Available at: https://aiatsis.gov.au/exhibitions/remembering-mission-days (accessed 5 March 2019).Altman, J. C. (2001). Sustainable Development Options on Aboriginal Land: the Hybrid Economy in the 21st Century. CAEPR Working Paper No. 226. CAEPR, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Altman, J. C. (2016). Bawinanga and CDEP: the vibrant life, and near death, of a major Aboriginal corporation in Arnhem Land. In: ‘Better than Welfare? Work and Livelihoods for Indigenous Australians after CDEP’. (Ed. K. Jordan.) pp. 175–218. (Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research, Australian National University Press: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)
Altman, J., and Cochrane, M. (2005). Sustainable development in the indigenous-owned savannah: innovative institutional design for cooperative wildlife management. Wildlife Research 32, 473–480.
| Sustainable development in the indigenous-owned savannah: innovative institutional design for cooperative wildlife management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Altman, J. C., and Whitehead, P. J. (2003). Caring for country and sustainable Indigenous development: opportunities, constraints and innovation. CAEPR Working Paper No. 20. CAEPR, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Arthur, W. (1999) What’s new? The 1997 Parliamentary inquiry into indigenous business. CAEPR Discussion Paper No. 177/1999. CAEPR, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Atlas of Living Australia (2019). Mapping and analysis. Available at: https://www.ala.org.au/mapping-and-analysis/ (accessed 5 January 2019).
Australian Government (2019a). The Community Development Program (CDP). Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Canberra. Available at: https://www.pmc.gov.au/indigenous-affairs/employment/cdp (accessed 2 July 2019).
Australian Government (2019b). Closing the Gap Report 2019. Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet, Canberra. Available at: https://ctgreport.pmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/ctg-report-2019.pdf?a=1 (accessed 2 July 2019).
Belcher, B., Ruiz-Perez, M., and Achdiawan, R. (2005). Global patterns and trends in the use and management of commercial NTFPs: implications for livelihoods and conservation. World Development 33, 1435–1452.
| Global patterns and trends in the use and management of commercial NTFPs: implications for livelihoods and conservation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Boehlje, M. (1999). Structural changes in the agricultural industries: how do we measure, analyse and understand them? American Journal of Agricultural Economics 81, 1028–1041.
| Structural changes in the agricultural industries: how do we measure, analyse and understand them?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bowler, J. M., Johnston, H., Olley, J. M., Prescott, J. R., Roberts, R. G., Shawcross, W., and Spooner, N. A. (2003). New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia. Nature 421, 837–840.
| New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 12594511PubMed |
Brand, J. C., Cherikoff, V., and Lee, A. (1982). An outstanding food source of vitamin C. Lancet 320, 873.
| An outstanding food source of vitamin C.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brock, J. (2001). ‘Top End Native Plants: A Comprehensive Guide to the Trees and Shrubs of the Top End of the Northern Territory.’ (Reed New Holland: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)
Builth, H. (2002). The Archaeology and Socioeconomy of the Gunditjamara: a Landscape Analysis from Southwest Victoria. PhD thesis, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia.
Burgess, C., Johnston, F., Berry, H., McDonnell, J., Yibarbuk, D., Gunabarra, C., Mileran, A., and Bailie, R. (2009). Healthy country, healthy people: the relationship between Indigenous health status and “caring for country”. The Medical Journal of Australia 190, 567–572.
| Healthy country, healthy people: the relationship between Indigenous health status and “caring for country”.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19450204PubMed |
Cox, A. (1999). Power, value and supply chain management. Supply Chain Management 4, 167–175.
| Power, value and supply chain management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cunningham, A. B., Courtenay, K., Gorman, J. T., and Garnett, S. (2009). Eco-enterprises and Kakadu Plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana): ‘best laid plans’ and Australian policy lessons. Economic Botany 63, 16–28.
| Eco-enterprises and Kakadu Plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana): ‘best laid plans’ and Australian policy lessons.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dale, A. (1996). Community-based planning in establishing wildlife projects. In: ‘Sustainable Use of Wildlife by Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islanders’. (Eds M. Bomford and J. Caughley.) pp. 110–125. (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)
Dunlop, C. R., Leach, G. J., and Cowie, I. D. (1995). Flora of the Darwin Region, Vol. 2. Northern Territory Botanical Bulletin No. 20. Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory, Darwin, NT, Australia.
Evans, L. (2007). Opportunities, impediments and capacity building for enterprise development by Australian Aboriginal communities. Journal of Aboriginal Economic Development 5, 44–55.
Flamsteed, K., and Golding, B. (2005). ‘Learning through Indigenous Business: the Role of Vocational Education and Training in Indigenous Enterprise and Community Development.’ (NCVER: Adelaide, SA, Australia.)
Fleming, A. E. (2015). Improving business investment confidence in culture-aligned Indigenous economies in remote Australian communities: a business support framework to better inform government programs. International Indigenous Policy Journal 6, .
| Improving business investment confidence in culture-aligned Indigenous economies in remote Australian communities: a business support framework to better inform government programs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Foley, D. (2007). Indigenous entrepreneurship: what when, how and why? Paper presented at the Regional Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research Conference: 4th International Australian Graduate School of Entrepreneurship (AGSE) Entrepreneurship Research Exchange, 6–9 February 2007, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
Fordham, A., Fogarty, W., and Fordham, D. A. (2010). The viability of wildlife enterprises in remote indigenous communities of Australia: a case study. CAEPR Working Paper No. 63. CAEPR, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Frederick, H., and Foley, D. (2006). Indigenous entrepreneurs in Australia and New Zealand: a test of social marginality theory. In: ‘Entrepreneurship in Emerging Regions: Proceedings of the Conference’. Hyderabad, India.
Gorman, J., and Vemuri, S. (2017). A precursor to entrepreneurialism on Aboriginal Lands of the Northern Territory of Australia. International Journal of Entrepreneurship 21, 16–31.
Gorman, J., Whitehead, P. J., and Griffiths, A. D. (2006). An analysis of the use of plant products for commerce in remote Aboriginal Communities of Northern Australia. Journal Economic Botany 60, 362–373.
| An analysis of the use of plant products for commerce in remote Aboriginal Communities of Northern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gorman, J., Pearson, D., and Whitehead, P. (2008). Assisting Australian Indigenous resource management and sustainable utilization of species through the use of GIS and environmental modelling techniques. Journal of Environmental Management 86, 104–113.
| Assisting Australian Indigenous resource management and sustainable utilization of species through the use of GIS and environmental modelling techniques.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17303315PubMed |
Gorman, J., Brady, C., and Clancy, T. (2018a). ‘Management Program for Terminalia ferdinandiana in the Northern Territory of Australia 2018–2022.’ (Northern Territory Department of Environment and Natural Resources: Darwin, NT, Australia.)
Gorman, J., Brady, C., and Sultanbawa, Y. (2018b) ‘Looking after country’ through wildlife utilisation. In: ‘Advances in Conservation Through Sustainable Use of Wildlife. Proceedings of the Sustainable Use Conference’. 30 August–1 September 2016. (Eds G. Baxter, N. Finch and P. Murray.) pp. 235–239. (Wildlife Science Unit, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Queensland: Gatton, Qld, Australia.)
Herron, J. (1998). ‘Removing the Welfare Shackles: A Discussion Paper on a Reform Initiative for Indigenous Economic Development.’ (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)
HRSCATSIA (House of Representatives Standing Committee on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs). (2008). ‘Open for Business: Developing Indigenous Enterprises in Australia.’ (Commonwealth of Australia: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)
Isaacs, J. (1987). ‘Bush Food, Aboriginal Food and Herbal Medicine.’ (Ure Smith Press: Sydney, NSW, Australia.)
Kawulich, B. B. (2005). Participant observation as a data collection method. Forum Qualitative Social Research 6, 43.
Lazzarini, S. G., Chaddad, F., and Cook, M. L. (2001). Integrating supply chain and network analyses: The study of netchains. Journal on Chain and Network Science 1, 7–22.
| Integrating supply chain and network analyses: The study of netchains.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lindsay, B. Y., Waliwararra, K., Milijat, F., Kuwarda, H., Pirak, R., Muyung, A., Pambany, E., Marryridj, J., Marrfurra, P., and Wightman, G. (2001). ‘MalakMalak and Matngala Plants and Animals – Aboriginal Flora and Fauna Knowledge from the Daly River Area, Northern Australia.’ (Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory: Darwin, NT, Australia.)
Luckert, M. K., Campbell, B. M., Gorman, J. T., and Garnett, S. T. (Eds) (2007). ‘Investing in Indigenous Natural Resource Management.’ (Charles Darwin University Press: Darwin, NT, Australia.)
Mannatech Science (2019). Ambrotose AO® Capsules. Available at: https://za.mannatechscience.org/product/ambrotose-ao-capsules-2/ (accessed 9 October 2019).
Marshall, C., and Rossman, G. B. (1989). ‘Designing Qualitative Research.’ (Sage: Newbury Park, CA, USA.)
McKnight, C. C. (1976). ‘The Voyage to Marege. Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia.’ (Melbourne University Press: Melbourne, Vic., Australia.)
Miller, J. B., James, K. W., and Maggiore, P. M. (1993). ‘Tables of Composition of Australian Aboriginal Foods.’ (Aboriginal Studies Press: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)
Morley, S. (2014). Success Factors for Indigenous Entrepreneurs and Community-based Enterprises (Resource Sheet No. 30). Closing the Gap Clearinghouse, Canberra, ACT. Available at: http://www.aihw.gov.au/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=60129546986 (accessed 29 May 2020).
Morphy, F., and Sanders, W. (Eds) (2001). The Indigenous welfare economy and the CDEP scheme. CAEPR Research Monograph No. 20. Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Mundine, W. (2010). Wrong Mr Abbott, let’s just get down to business. ABC News, 29 September 2010. Available at: https://mobile.abc.net.au/news/2010-04-30/33878 (accessed 29 May 2020).
NAAKPA (2018). North Australian Aboriginal Kakadu Plum Alliance. Available at: https://naakpa.com.au/ (accessed 17 December 2018).
National Australian Museum (2019). Collaborating for Indigenous Rights. Available at: https://www.indigenousrights.net.au/ (accessed May 2019).
Netzel, M., Netzel, G., Tian, Q., Schwartz, S., and Konczak, I. (2007). Native Australian fruits – a novel source of antioxidants for food. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 8, 339–346.
| Native Australian fruits – a novel source of antioxidants for food.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nikolakis, W. (2010). Determinants of success among indigenous enterprise in the Northern Territory of Australia. Journal of Aboriginal Economic Development 6, 23–37.
Northern Territory Government (2019). Aboriginal Labour Force Characteristics. Department of Treasury and Finance. Available at: https://nteconomy.nt.gov.au/labour-market/aboriginal-labour-force-characteristics#unemployment (accessed 29 May 2020).
O’Keeffe, M. (1998). Establishing supply chain partnerships: lessons from Australian agribusiness. Supply Chain Management 3, 5–9.
| Establishing supply chain partnerships: lessons from Australian agribusiness.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Paumgarten, F., and Shackleton, C. (2011). The role of non-timber forest products in household coping strategies in South Africa: the influence of household wealth and gender. Population and Environment 33, 108–131.
| The role of non-timber forest products in household coping strategies in South Africa: the influence of household wealth and gender.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Pedley, L. (1995). ‘Combretaceae. Flora of Australia.’ pp. 255–293. In ‘Flora of Australia. Vol. 18’. (Ed. AS George) pp. 255–293. (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)
Puruntatameri, J., Puruntatameri, R., Pangiraminni, A., Burak, L., Tipuamantymirri, C., Tipakalippa, M., Puruntatameri, J., Puruntatameri, P., Pupangamirri, J. B., Kerinaiua, R., Tipiloura, D., Orsto, M. M., Kantilla, B., Kurrupuwu, I., Puruntatameri, P. F., Puruntatameri, T. D., Puruntatameri, L., Kantilla, K., Wilson, J., Cusack, J., Jackson, D., and Wightman, G. (2001). ‘Tiwi Plants and Animals: Aboriginal Flora and Fauna Knowledge from Bathurst and Melville Islands, northern Australia.’ (Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory and Tiwi Land Council: Darwin, NT, Australia.)
Research by Design (2016). Demand Analysis and Growth Indicators of Kakadu Plum. Confidential Report for Kindered Spirits Enterprises and Traditional Homeland Enterprise Kakadu Plum Communities. (Research by Design.)
Rose, D. B. (1996). ‘Nourishing Terrains – Australian Aboriginal Views of Landscape and Wilderness.’ (Australian Heritage Commission: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)
SRRATRC (1998). ‘Commercial Utilisation of Australian Native Wildlife.’ (Senate Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport References Committee: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)
Sultanbawa, Y., Williams, D., Chaliha, M., Konczak, I., and Smyth, H. (2015). Changes in quality and bioactivity of native foods during storage. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) Publication No. 15/010. RIRDC, Barton, ACT, Australia.
Sultanbawa, Y., Chaliha, M., Cusack, A., Edwards, D., and Williams, D. (2018). Monitoring quality and bioactivity of Kakadu plum in the Northern Territory. AgriFutures Australia Publication No. 18/024, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia.
Taylor, J., and Hunter, B. (2001). Indigenous data from the ABS Labour Force Survey: What Can They Tell Us? Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research Discussion Paper 214, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
Thompson, J. D. (1967). ‘Organizations in Action: Social Science Bases of Administrative Theory.’ Traditional Homeland Enterprises. (McGraw-Hill: New York, USA.) Available at: https://thekakaduplum.com.au/contact/ (accessed 8 August 2019).
Traditional Homeland Enterprise (2019). Available at: https://thekakaduplum.com.au/ (accessed 10 August 2019).
United Nations (2019). Sustainability Goals. Available at: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/ (accessed 5 August 2019).
Williams, D. J., Edwards, D., Pun, S., Chaliha, M., and Sultanbawa, Y. (2014). Profiling ellagic acid content: the importance of form and ascorbic acid levels. Food Research International 66, 100–106.
| Profiling ellagic acid content: the importance of form and ascorbic acid levels.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams, D. J., Edwards, D., Pun, S., Chaliha, M., Burren, B., Tinggi, U., and Sultanbawa, Y. (2016). Organic acids in Kakadu plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana): the good (ellagic), the bad (oxalic) and the uncertain (ascorbic). Food Research International 89, 237–244.
| Organic acids in Kakadu plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana): the good (ellagic), the bad (oxalic) and the uncertain (ascorbic).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 28460910PubMed |
Woodward, E., Jarvis, D., and Maclean, K. (2019). ‘The Traditional Owner-led Bush Products Sector: An Overview.’ (CSIRO: Canberra, ACT, Australia.)
WRI (World Resources Institute) (1986). ‘World Resources 1986: An Assessment of the Resource Base that Supports the Global Economy.’ (Basic Books: New York, USA.)
Young, E. (1988). Aboriginal economic enterprises: problems and prospects. In ‘North Australia: Progress and Perspective. Vol. 1. Contemporary Issues in Development’. (Eds D. Wade-Marshall and P. Loveday.) pp. 182–200. (North Australian Research Unit, Australian National University: Darwin, NT, Australia.)
