Carbon farming co-benefits: a review of concepts, policy and potential in Australian landscapes

Sarah Milne; Sam Beaver; Caitlyn Baljak; Alex Cox; Mark Howden

doi:10.1071/RJ24015

RESEARCH ARTICLE (Open Access)

Previous Next Contents Vol 46(3)

Carbon farming co-benefits: a review of concepts, policy and potential in Australian landscapes

Sarah Milne

^A ^* , Sam Beaver ^B , Caitlyn Baljak ^C , Alex Cox ^A and Mark Howden ^B

+ Author Affiliations

- Author Affiliations

^A Crawford School of Public Policy, College of Asia and the Pacific, Australian National University, Building 132, Acton, ACT 2601, Australia.

^B Institute for Climate, Energy & Disaster Solutions, Australian National University, Acton, ACT 2601, Australia.

^C Engineers Australia, 11 National Circuit, Barton, ACT 2600, Australia.

^* Correspondence to: sarah.milne@anu.edu.au

The Rangeland Journal 46, RJ24015 https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ24015

Submitted: 22 April 2024 Accepted: 29 July 2024 Published: 2 September 2024

© 2024 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Australian Rangeland Society. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

Land-use changes through carbon farming in Australia have the potential to deliver significant environmental, economic, social and cultural benefits to regional areas, especially in the rangelands. For this reason, policymakers and carbon market proponents have articulated the notion of ‘co-benefits’, to refer to the desirable impacts of carbon farming beyond emissions abatement. Aboriginal leaders similarly refer to crucial ‘core benefits’ like First Nations’ custodianship of land or Country. In this article, we navigate the complex conceptual and policy terrain that now surrounds carbon farming co-benefits in Australia through a comprehensive review. This is a vital undertaking because carbon farming to date has been dominated by the federal government’s purchasing of Australian Carbon Credit Units (ACCUs) in accordance with a mandate that seeks lowest cost emissions abatement, with no formal recognition or valuation of co-benefits. This has produced an ad hoc policy environment in which some co-benefits are recognised and valued, often with significant price premiums, through a range of federal and state government, nongovernment and private schemes. To interpret this policy domain, we first argue for greater conceptual clarity through using the notion of ‘co-impacts’, which conveys how carbon farming produces an array of potential benefits, costs and risks across space and time, with differential impacts for diverse actors. Second, we review current initiatives related to carbon co-benefits in Australia, identifying over 20 separate schemes with distinct governance arrangements. Our findings point to the significant potential and value of carbon co-benefits in Australia. To achieve this potential, we argue that nationwide policy frameworks must now harmonise approaches, standardise units and measures where possible, and localise carbon farming implementation strategies.

Keywords: Australia, carbon credits, carbon farming, climate mitigation, co-benefits, co-impacts, environmental policy, risk.

References

Aboriginal Carbon Foundation (2019) ‘Core Benefits Verification Framework: For the environmental, social and cultural values of Aboriginal carbon farming’. (Aboriginal Carbon Foundation: Brisbane, Qld) Available at https://www.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/105750/core-benefits-verification-framework.pdf

Aboriginal Carbon Foundation and Firesticks Alliance Indigenous Corporation (2022) ‘Cultural Fire Credit: Philosophy and Guidelines.’ (Aboriginal Carbon Foundation: Brisbane, Qld) Available at https://www.abcfoundation.org.au/wp-content/uploads/Cultural-Fire-Credit-Philosophy-and-Guidelines-2022.pdf

Accounting for Nature (2024) ‘Accounting for Nature.’ (Accounting for Nature Ltd.: Sydney, NSW) Available at https://www.accountingfornature.org/

Agriculture Victoria (2024) Victorian Carbon Farming Program. (Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action: Melbourne, Vic).

Altman J, Kerins S (Eds) (2012) ‘People on country: vital landscapes, Indigenous futures.’ (Federation Press: Alexandria, NSW)

Altman J, Ansell J, Yibarbuk D (2020) No ordinary company: Arnhem Land Fire Abatement (Northern Territory) Limited. Postcolonial Studies 23, 552-574.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Barber M, Jackson S (2017) Identifying and categorizing cobenefits in state-supported Australian indigenous environmental management programs: international research implications. Ecology and Society 22, 11.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Baumber A, Metternicht G, Cross R, Ruoso L-E (2019a) ‘Environmental co-benefits of carbon farming: Review of market mechanisms, tools and frameworks for assessing and incentivising environmental co-benefits of carbon farming’. Report for Department of Primary Industries. (NSW Government: Sydney)

Baumber A, Metternicht G, Cross R, Ruoso L-E, Cowie AL, Waters C (2019b) Promoting co-benefits of carbon farming in Oceania: applying and adapting approaches and metrics from existing market-based schemes. Ecosystem Services 39, 100982.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Baumber A, Waters C, Cross R, Metternicht G, Simpson M (2020) Carbon farming for resilient rangelands: people, paddocks and policy. The Rangeland Journal 42, 293-307.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

BCT (Biodiversity Conservation Trust) (2022) ‘Restoring Murray Woodlands: Biodiversity and Carbon Conservation Tender.’ (Department of Planning, NSW Government: Sydney)

Bremer L, Nelson S, Jackson S, Izquierdo-Tort S, Lansing D, Shapiro-Garza E, Echavarría M, Upton C, Asquith N, Isyaku U (2023) Embedding local values in Payments for Ecosystem Services for transformative change. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 64, 101354.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Cannon J (2024) The future of forest carbon credits and voluntary markets. Mongabay, 16 January. United States. Available at https://news.mongabay.com/2024/01/the-future-of-forest-carbon-credits-and-voluntary-markets/

Canopy Blue (2023) ‘Western Australian Kelp Reforestation Credits Prospectus’. (Canopy Blue: Perth, WA) Available at https://canopyblue.co/purchase-kelp-reforestation-credits/ [Accessed 14 August 2024]

Carbon Market Institute (2022) ‘Carbon Farming Industry Roadmap.’ (Carbon Market Institute: Melbourne, Vic)

Carbon Market Institute (2023) ‘Considerations for future ACCU supply & demand.’ (Carbon Market Institute: Melbourne, Vic)

Carbon Neutral (2024) ‘Yarra Yarra Biodiversity Corridor.’ (Carbon Neutral: Perth, WA) Available at https://carbonneutral.com.au/reforestation-and-habitat-restoration/#BRCOS-info [accessed 10 December 2023]

Casben L (2023) Carbon farm sale lets descendants return to Country. National Indigenous Times, 15 September. Available at https://nit.com.au/15-09-2023/7695/carbon-farm-sale-lets-descendants-return-to-country

Cassinia Environmental (2023) ‘BushBank - restoring native vegetation on private land: Landowner project guidelines.’ (Cassinia Environmental: Melbourne, Vic)

Catalyst Markets (2024) ‘Community Credits.’ (Catalyst Markets: Brisbane, Qld) Available at https://catalystmarkets.com.au/community-credits/# [accessed 1 December 2023]

CCBA (2023) ‘CCB Standards.’ (The Climate, Community & Biodiversity Alliance: Virginia, USA) Available at https://www.climate-standards.org/ccb-standards/ [accessed 29 November 2023]

CER (2023) ‘Auction Results.’ (Australian Government: Canberra, ACT) Available at https://cer.gov.au/schemes/australian-carbon-credit-unit-scheme/how-participate/contracts-and-auctions/auction-results [accessed 11 April 2024]

CER (2024) ‘Australian Carbon Exchange.’ (Clean Energy Regulator: Canberra, ACT) Available at https://cer.gov.au/markets/australian-carbon-exchange [accessed 11 April 2024]

Chhatre A, Lakhanpal S, Larson AM, Nelson F, Ojha H, Rao J (2012) Social safeguards and co-benefits in REDD+: a review of the adjacent possible. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 4, 654-660.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Chubb I, Bennett A, Gorring A, Hatfield-Dodds S (2022) ‘Independent Review of Australian Carbon Credit Units.’ (Department of Climate Change, Energy, Environment and Water: Canberra, ACT)

Clima (2024) The carbon guy: Australian carbon market update. 04/06/2024 report. Available at https://www.clima.com.au/blog/2024/06/04/04-06-2024-the-carbon-guy-australian-carbon-market-update [accessed 18 July 2024]

Climate Active (2024) ‘Climate Active.’ (Climate Active: Canberra, ACT) Available at https://www.climateactive.org.au/ [accessed 5 April 2024]

Climate Change Authority (2020) ‘Review of the Emissions Reduction Fund.’ (Climate Change Authority: Canberra, ACT)

Climate Change Authority (2023) ‘2023 Review of the Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011.’ (Climate Change Authority: Canberra, ACT)

Cockfield G, Shrestha U, Waters C (2019) Evaluating the potential financial contributions of carbon farming to grazing enterprises in Western NSW. The Rangeland Journal 41, 211-223.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Compensate Foundation (2023) ‘From Carbon to Nature: What the biodiversity markets can learn from the voluntary carbon market?’ 25 October. (Compensate Foundation: Helsinki, Finland). Available at https://www.compensate.com/articles/from-carbon-to-nature

Corey B, Andersen AN, Legge S, Woinarski JC, Radford IJ, Perry JJ (2020) Better biodiversity accounting is needed to prevent bioperversity and maximize co‐benefits from savanna burning. Conservation Letters 13, e12685.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Country Needs People (2017) ‘Protecting Nature For All Of Us: Environmental benefits of Australia’s Indigenous Protected Areas and Indigenous Rangers.’ (Country Needs People: Canberra, ACT)

Cowie AL, Waters C, Garland F, Orgill S, Baumber A, Cross R, O’Connell D, Metternicht G (2019) Assessing resilience to underpin implementation of Land Degradation Neutrality: a case study in the rangelands of western New South Wales, Australia. Environmental Science & Policy 100, 37-46.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

CSIRO (2019) ‘Co-benefits and Greenhouse Gas Abatement.’ (CSIRO: Canberra, ACT) Available https://research.csiro.au/digiscape/co-benefits-and-greenhouse-gas-abatement/ [accessed 11 November 2023]

DAWE (2021a) ‘Enhancing Remnant Vegetation Pilot. Management Protocol: Burnett Mary NRM Region (Queensland)’ Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, March. CC BY 4.0.0 (Australian Government: Canberra, ACT)

DAWE (2021b) ‘Enhancing Remnant Vegetation Pilot. Management Protocol: Eyre Peninsula NRM Region (South Australia)’. Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, March. CC BY 4.0.0 (Australian government: Canberra, ACT)

DCCEEW (2024a) ‘Agriculture Biodiversity Stewardship.’ (Australian Government: Canberra, ACT) Available at https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/environmental-markets/agriculture-stewardship [accessed 11 April 2024]

DCCEEW (2024b) ‘Carbon + Biodiversity Pilot.’ (Department of Climate Change, Energy, Environment and Water: Canberra, ACT) Available at https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/environmental-markets/agriculture-stewardship/c-b-pilot [accessed 18 October 2023]

DCCEEW (2024c) ‘Enhancing Remnant Vegetation Pilot.’ (Department of Climate Change, Energy, Environment and Water: Canberra, ACT) Available at https://agsteward.com.au/program-info/erv [accessed 11 December 2023]

DCCEEW (2024d) ‘Nature Repair Market.’ (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water: Canberra, ACT) Available at https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/environmental-markets/nature-repair-market [accessed 20 October 2023]

Deane F, Macharia J, Mellick Z, Maguire R, Mannion J (2023) ‘The Safeguard Mechanism: Risk versus Reward for Agriculture.’ (Queensland University of Technology: Brisbane, Qld)

DEECA (2024) ‘BushBank program.’ Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action. (Victorian Government: Melbourne, Vic) Available at https://www.environment.vic.gov.au/bushbank [accessed 11 April 2024]

Department of Environment and Science (2023) ‘The Land Restoration Fund Priority Investment Plan’. (Queensland Government: Brisbane, Qld)

Díaz SM, Settele J, Brondízio E, Ngo H, Guèze M, Agard J, Arneth A, Balvanera P, Brauman K, Butchart S et al. (2019) ‘The global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services: Summary for policy makers.’ (IPBES Secretariat: Bonn, Germany) Available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3553579 [Accessed 14 August 2024]

DISER (2022) ‘Options to Manage the Impacts of the Emissions Reduction Fund on Regional Communities.’ (Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources: Canberra, ACT)

DPE (2023) ‘Department of Planning and Environment Submission on the Nature Repair Market Bill 2023 - Exposure Draft.’ (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water: Canberra, ACT)

DPIRD (2023) ‘Co-benefits standard 2022-2023.’ (Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development: Perth, WA)

Eco-Markets Australia (2021) ‘Reef Credit Standard 2.0.’ (Eco-Markets Australia: Brisbane, Qld)

Eco-Markets Australia (2023) ‘Reef Credit Scheme.’ (Eco-Markets Australia: Qld, Australia) Available at https://eco-markets.org.au/reef-credits/ [accessed 9 November 2023]

Edwards A, Archer R, De Bruyn P, Evans J, Lewis B, Vigilante T, Whyte S, Russell-Smith J (2021) Transforming fire management in northern Australia through successful implementation of savanna burning emissions reductions projects. Journal of Environmental Management 290, 112568.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Eggleton, M. (2022) Home grown carbon credits with social co-benefits gain popularity. Australian Financial Review, October 11. Available at https://www.afr.com/policy/energy-and-climate/home-grown-carbon-credits-with-social-co-benefits-gain-popularity-20221010-p5bol1 [accessed 11 April 2024]

Ernst & Young (2022) ‘Essential, expensive and evolving: The outlook for carbon credits and offsets.’ (Enrst & Young: Australia)

Ernst & Young (2023) ‘Changing Gears: Australia’s Carbon Market Outlook 2023.’ (Ernst & Young: Australia)

Evans MC (2018) Effective incentives for reforestation: lessons from Australia’s carbon farming policies. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 32, 38-45.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Evans J, Russell-Smith J (2019) Delivering effective savanna fire management for defined biodiversity conservation outcomes: an Arnhem Land case study. International Journal of Wildland Fire 29, 386-400.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Fleming A, Stitzlein C, Jakku E, Fielke S (2019) Missed opportunity? Framing actions around co-benefits for carbon mitigation in Australian agriculture. Land Use Policy 85, 230-238.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Gibbons P, Macintosh A, Constable AL, Hayashi K (2018) Outcomes from 10 years of biodiversity offsetting. Global Change Biology 24, e643-e654.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Gold Standard (2023) ‘A higher standard for climate security and sustainable development.’ (Gold Standard: Chatelaine, Switzerland) Available at https://www.goldstandard.org/our-story/gold-standard-global-goals [accessed 29 November 2023]

Grace P, Holmes J (2022) ‘Mapping the Opportunities for Indigenous Carbon in Australia: Identifying opportunities and barriers to Indigenous participation in the Emissions Reduction Fund.’ (Indigenous Carbon Industry Network: Darwin, NT)

GreenCollar (2023) ‘NaturePlus Standard.’ (GreenCollar: Sydney, NSW)

Gupta A, Lövbrand E, Turnhout E, Vijge MJ (2012) In pursuit of carbon accountability: the politics of REDD+ measuring, reporting and verification systems. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 4, 726-731.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

ICIN (2022) ‘Indigenous Carbon Projects Guide.’ (Indigenous Carbon Industry Network: Darwin, NT) Available at https://www.icin.org.au/indigenous_carbon_projects_guide_downloads

ICIN (2023) ‘Indigenous Carbon Industry Network Submission on the proposed Nature Repair Market Bill.’ (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water: Canberra, ACT)

IPCC (2014) ‘Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC’ (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Geneva, Switzerland) Available at https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/SYR_AR5_FINAL_full.pdf [accessed 14 August 2024]

IPCC (2023) ‘Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups on Sixth Assessment Report’ (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Geneva, Switzerland) Available at https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/ [accessed 14 August2024]

Jacob M, O’Connor P, Rolfe J (2023) ‘Review of the Agriculture Biodiversity Stewardship Pilots to inform the Nature Repair Market.’ (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water: Canberra, ACT)

Jassim D, Witt B, Evans MC (2022) Community perceptions of carbon farming: a case study of the semi-arid Mulga Lands in Queensland, Australia. Journal of Rural Studies 96, 78-88.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

KLC (2024) ‘Native Title Overview.’ (Kimberley Land Council) Available at https://www.klc.org.au/native-title-overview [accessed 11 April 2024]

Lindenmayer D, Scheele BC, Young M, Vardon M (2023) The business of biodiversity – What is needed for biodiversity markets to work. Ecological Management & Restoration 24, 3-6.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

LRF (2023) ‘The Land Restoration Fund Co-Benefits Standard.’ (Queensland Government: Brisbane, Qld)

Maron M, Bull JW, Evans MC, Gordon A (2015) Locking in loss: baselines of decline in Australian biodiversity offset policies. Biological Conservation 192, 504-512.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Metternicht G, Water C, Baumber A, Cross R (2019) ‘Potential Indicators for the co-benefits of carbon farming: Evaluation of potential indicators for the co-benefits of carbon farming in NSW’. Department of Primary Industries. (NSW Government: Sydney)

Milne S, Mahanty S (2019) Value and bureaucratic violence in the green economy. Geoforum 98, 133-143.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Milne S, Mahanty S, To P, Dressler W, Kanowski P, Thavat M (2019) Learning from ‘actually existing’REDD+: a synthesis of ethnographic findings. Conservation and Society 17, 84-95.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Muradian R, Arsel M, Pellegrini L, Adaman F, Aguilar B, Agarwal B, Corbera E, Ezzine de Blas D, Farley J, Froger G (2013) Payments for ecosystem services and the fatal attraction of win‐win solutions. Conservation Letters 6, 274-279.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

NaturePlus (2023) ‘About NaturePlus^TM.’ (GreenCollar: Sydney, NSW) Available at https://naturepluscredits.com/about-natureplus/ [accessed 29 November 2023]

Nelson R, Howden M, Stafford Smith M (2008) Using adaptive governance to rethink the way science supports Australian drought policy. Environmenal Science & Policy 11(2008), 588-601.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

NLC (2024) ‘Land and Sea Rights.’ (Northern Land Council: Darwin, NT) Available at https://www.nlc.org.au/land-and-sea-rights [accessed 14 August 2024]

NRM Regions Australia (2023) ‘NRM Regions Australia Submission on the Nature Repair Bill.’ (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water: Canberra, ACT)

OECC (2022) ‘High Impact Partnerships grant guidelines.’ (Office of Energy and Climate Change, NSW Treasury: Sydney, NSW)

Parliament of Australia (2011) ‘Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011.’ (Parliament of Australia: Canberra)

Pert PL, Hill R, Robinson CJ, Jarvis D, Davies J (2020) Is investment in Indigenous land and sea management going to the right places to provide multiple co-benefits? Australasian Journal of Environmental Management 27, 249-274.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Phelps J, Webb EL, Adams WM (2012) Biodiversity co-benefits of policies to reduce forest-carbon emissions. Nature Climate Change 2, 497-503.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Plan Vivo (2024) ‘Plan Vivo: For nature, climate and communities’ (Plan Vivo Foundation: Edinburgh, Scotland) Available at https://www.planvivo.org/ [accessed 12 January 2024]

Point Advisory (2020) ‘CarbonCare: Co-benefits assessment and valuation study.’ (Point Advisory: Melbourne, Vic)

Pollination (2023) ‘Voluntary Biodiversity Credit Scheme Review: The NaturePlus™ Scheme Developed by GreenCollar.’ (Pollination Group Australia: Sydney, NSW) Available at https://pollinationgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/GreenCollar_NaturePlusTM_Scheme_Report.pdf

Reklev S (2023) Start-up sells first kelp reforestation credits, eyes registration under leading carbon standards. Carbon Pulse, March 20. Available at https://carbon-pulse.com/196301/

Robertson MM (2006) The nature that capital can see: science, state, and market in the commodification of ecosystem services. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 24, 367-387.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Robinson CJ, Gerrard E, May T, Maclean K (2014) Australia’s Indigenous carbon economy: a national snapshot. Geographical Research 52, 123-132.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Robinson CJ, James G, Whitehead PJ (2016a) Negotiating Indigenous benefits from payment for ecosystem service (PES) schemes. Global Environmental Change 38, 21-29.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Robinson CJ, Renwick AR, May T, Gerrard E, Foley R, Battaglia M, Possingham H, Griggs D, Walker D (2016b) Indigenous benefits and carbon offset schemes: an Australian case study. Environmental Science & Policy 56, 129-134.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Sangha KK, Evans J, Edwards A, Russell-Smith J, Fisher R, Yates C, Costanza R (2021) Assessing the value of ecosystem services delivered by prescribed fire management in Australian tropical savannas. Ecosystem Services 51, 101343.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Savaresi A (2013) REDD+ and human rights: addressing synergies between international regimes. Ecology and Society 18(3), 5.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Schroeder H, McDermott C (2014) Beyond carbon: enabling justice and equity in REDD+ across levels of governance. Ecology and Society 19, 31.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Seddon N, Smith A, Smith P, Key I, Chausson A, Girardin C, House J, Srivastava S, Turner B (2021) Getting the message right on nature‐based solutions to climate change. Global Change Biology 27, 1518-1546.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |

Snyder H (2019) Literature review as a research methodology: an overview and guidelines. Journal of Business Research 104, 333-339.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

South Pole (2023) ‘EcoAustralia^TM Credits.’ (South Pole: Australia) Available at https://www.southpole.com/sustainability-solutions/ecoaustralia [accessed 29 November 2023]

Terrain NRM (2022) ‘New Biodiversity Credit Scheme.’ (Terrain NRM: Brisbane, Qld) Available at https://terrain.org.au/what-we-do/biodiversity/cassowary-credit-scheme/ [accessed 29 November 2023]

Tilly M (2023) Australian cassowary credit scheme highlights the long road to a biodiversity market. Carbon Pulse, January 19. Available at https://carbon-pulse.com/188282/

TNFD (2024) ‘The Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures.’ (Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures: London, UK) Available at https://tnfd.global/ [accessed 11 April 2024]

UNFCCC (2022) ‘Nature-Based Solutions.’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) Available at https://climatechampions.unfccc.int/system/nature-based-solutions/ [11 April 2024]

UNFCCC (2024) ‘Safeguards.’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) Available at https://redd.unfccc.int/fact-sheets/safeguards.html [accessed 11 April 2024]

UN-REDD Programme (2024) ‘Safeguards & Multiple Benefits.’ (UN-REDD Programme) Available at https://www.un-redd.org/work-areas/safeguards-multiple-benefits [accessed 11 April 2024]

Ürge-Vorsatz D, Herrero ST, Dubash NK, Lecocq F (2014) Measuring the co-benefits of climate change mitigation. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 39, 549-582.
| Crossref | Google Scholar |

Webster E (2023) ‘Carbon farming and Drought Resilience.’ Report for Climate Friendly. (Charles Sturt University: Bathurst, NSW, Australia)

Weir JK, Stacey C, Youngetob K (2011) ‘The benefits associated with caring for country: Literature review.’ (AIATSIS: Canberra, ACT)

World Bank (2022) ‘What You Need to Know About Nature-Based Solutions to Climate Change.’ (World Bank Group) Available at https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2022/05/19/what-you-need-to-know-about-nature-based-solutions-to-climate-change [accessed 11 April 2024]

Yates C, Evans J, Vernooij R, Eames T, Muir E, Holmes J, Edwards A, Russell-Smith J (2023) Incentivizing sustainable fire management in Australia’s northern arid spinifex grasslands. Journal of Environmental Management 344, 118384.
| Crossref | Google Scholar | PubMed |