Rangeland responses to pastoralists’ grazing management on a Tibetan steppe grassland, Qinghai Province, China
Richard B. Harris A G I , Leah H. Samberg A H , Emily T. Yeh B , Andrew T. Smith C , Wang Wenying D , Wang Junbang E ,
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Department of Ecosystem and Conservation Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA.
B Department of Geography, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA.
C Department of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA.
D Department of Biology, Qinghai Normal University, Xining, Qinghai, China.
E Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
F The Centre for Tibetan Studies of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
G Present address: Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, WA 98501, USA.
H Present address: College of Forestry and Conservation, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA.
I Corresponding author. Email: rharris@montana.com
The Rangeland Journal 38(1) 1-15 https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ15040
Submitted: 18 May 2015 Accepted: 1 December 2015 Published: 22 January 2016
Abstract
Livestock grazing is the principal land use in arid central Asia, and range degradation is considered a serious problem within much of the high-elevation region of western China termed the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP). Rangeland degradation on the QTP is variously attributed to poor livestock management, historical-cultural factors, changing land tenure arrangements or socioeconomic systems, climate change, and damage from small mammals. Few studies have examined currently managed pastures using detailed data capable of isolating fine-scale livestock–vegetation interactions. The aim of the study was to understand how differences among livestock (primarily sheep) management strategies of pastoralists during winter affected subsequent rangeland condition and productivity. Plant species composition, annual herbage mass, and indicators of erosion were quantified during four summers (2009–2012) on winter pastures managed by 11 different pastoralists on QTP steppe rangeland in Qinghai Province, China. Data came from repeated-measurements on 317 systematically located permanent plots, as well as pastoralist interviews and the use of GPS-equipped livestock. Relationships between annual weather variation and herbage mass were modelled using an independent set of vegetation measurements obtained from livestock exclosures. Account was taken of inherent site differences among pastures. Annual variation in herbage mass was found to be best fitted by a model containing a negative function of winter-season temperature and a positive function of spring-season temperature. Accounting for annual and site effects, significant differences among pastoralists were found for most response variables, suggesting that individual heterogeneity among management approaches had consequences, even among neighbouring pastoralists. Annual herbage mass of preferred plant species was positively associated, whereas that of unpreferred species was negatively associated, with mean sheep density and intensity of use. However, the proportion of bare soil, an index of erosion, and annual herbage mass of unpreferred forbs were found to have positive relationships with sheep grazing pressure during the preceding winter, whereas live vegetation cover and annual herbage mass of preferred grasses were negatively related. Thus, on a spatial scale, pastoralists responded adaptively to the cover of preferred plant species while not responding to total annual herbage mass. Pastoralists stocked pastures more heavily, and livestock used regions within pastures more intensively, where preferred species had a higher cover. However, where sheep grazing pressure was high, downward temporal trends in the herbage mass of preferred species were exacerbated. Pastures that were stocked at a lower density did not experience the negative trends seen in those with a higher density.
Additional keywords: China, grasslands, livestock, Qinghai-Tibetan plateau, rangeland degradation, steppe vegetation, Tibetan pastoralism.
References
Allen, V. G., Batello, C., Berretta, E. J., Hodgson, J., Kothmann, M., Li, X., McIvor, J., Milne, J., Morris, C., Peeters, A., and Sanderson, M. (2011). An international terminology for grazing lands and grazing animals. Grass and Forage Science 66, 2–28.| An international terminology for grazing lands and grazing animals.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Banks, T. J. (2003). Property rights reform in rangeland China: dilemmas on the road to the household ranch. World Development 31, 2129–2142.
| Property rights reform in rangeland China: dilemmas on the road to the household ranch.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Banks, T. J., Richard, C., Li, P., and Yan, Z. L. (2003). Governing the grasslands of Western China. Mountain Research and Development 23, 132–140.
| Governing the grasslands of Western China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bauer, K. (2005). Development and the enclosure movement in pastoral Tibet since the 1980s. Nomadic Peoples 9, 53–81.
| Development and the enclosure movement in pastoral Tibet since the 1980s.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bauer, K., and Yonten Nyima, (2010). Laws and regulations impacting the enclosure movement on the Tibetan Plateau of China. Himalaya 30, 23–38.
Bedunah, D. J., and Angerer, J. P. (2012). Rangeland degradation, poverty, and conflict: how can rangeland scientists contribute to effective responses and solutions? Rangeland Ecology and Management 65, 606–612.
| Rangeland degradation, poverty, and conflict: how can rangeland scientists contribute to effective responses and solutions?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bian, J. H., Jing, Z. C., and Fan, N. C. (1999). The effect of grassland fencing on the population density of plateau pikas. Acta Biologica Plateau Sinica 14, 110–115.
Chen, S. (1996). Inner Asian grassland degradation and plant transformation. In: ‘Cultural and Environment in Inner Asia, Volume 1: The Pastoral Economy and the Environment’. (Eds C. Humphrey and D. Sneath.) pp. 111–123. (The White Horse Press: Cambridge, UK.)
Cincotta, R. P., van Soest, P. J., Robertson, J. B., Beall, C. M., and Goldstein, M. C. (1991). Foraging ecology of livestock on the Tibetan Changtang: a comparison of three adjacent grazing areas. Arctic and Alpine Research 23, 149–161.
| Foraging ecology of livestock on the Tibetan Changtang: a comparison of three adjacent grazing areas.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Damiran, D. (2005). ‘Palatability of Mongolian Rangeland Plants.’ (Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center: Union Station, OR.)
Delibes-Mateos, M., Smith, A. T., Slobodchikoff, C. N., and Swenson, J. E. (2011). The paradox of keystone species persecuted as pests: a call for the conservation of abundant small mammals in their native range. Biological Conservation 144, 1335–1346.
| The paradox of keystone species persecuted as pests: a call for the conservation of abundant small mammals in their native range.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dong, Q. M., Zhao, X. Q., Ma, Y. S., Li, Q. Y., Wang, Q. J., and Shi, J. J. (2003). Studies on the relationship between grazing intensity for yaks and plant groups in Kobresia parva alpine meadow. Acta Agrestia Sinica 13, 334–343.
Du, F. C. (2012). Ecological resettlement of Tibetan herders in the Sanjiangyuan: a case study in Madoi County of Qinghai. Nomadic Peoples 16, 116–133.
| Ecological resettlement of Tibetan herders in the Sanjiangyuan: a case study in Madoi County of Qinghai.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fan, N. C., Zhou, W. Y., Wei, W. H., Wang, Q. Y., and Jiang, Y. J. (1999). Rodent pest management in the Qinghai-Tibet alpine meadow ecosystem. In: ‘Ecologically-based Management of Rodent Pests’. (Eds G. R. Singleton, L. A. Hinds, H. Leirs and Z. B. Zhang.) pp. 285–304. (Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research: Canberra, ACT.)
Foggin, J. M. (2008). Depopulating the Tibetan Grasslands: national policies and perspectives for the future of Tibetan herds in Qinghai Province, China. Mountain Research and Development 28, 26–31.
| Depopulating the Tibetan Grasslands: national policies and perspectives for the future of Tibetan herds in Qinghai Province, China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Goldstein, M. C., and Beall, C. M. (2002). Changing patterns of Tibetan nomadic pastoralism. In: ‘Human Biology of Pastoral Populations’. (Eds W. R. Leonard and M. H. Crawford.) pp. 131–150. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)
Grant, A. (2003). A study of the implementation of China’s sloping land conversion policy ‘tui geng huan lin’: a case study – Hanyuan County, Sichuan Province. Forests. Trees and Livelihoods 13, 331–343.
| A study of the implementation of China’s sloping land conversion policy ‘tui geng huan lin’: a case study – Hanyuan County, Sichuan Province. Forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science 162, 1243–1248.
| The tragedy of the commons.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DyaF1M%2FjvVymsQ%3D%3D&md5=9772b06aa01424427ebc5af7c1e9c0b8CAS | 5699198PubMed |
Harris, R. B. (2008). ‘Wildlife Conservation in China: Preserving the Habitat of China’s Wild West.’ (M.E. Sharpe, Inc.: Armonk, NY.)
Harris, R. B. (2010). Rangeland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau: a review of the evidence of its magnitude and causes. Journal of Arid Environments 74, 1–12.
| Rangeland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau: a review of the evidence of its magnitude and causes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3c%2Fjs1yntQ%3D%3D&md5=7c8598ff92a86a2757f742463402a74fCAS |
Harris, R. B., Bedunah, D. J., Yeh, E. T., Smith, A. T., and Anderies, J. M. (2010). Determinants of rangeland dynamics on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, China: livestock, wildlife, and pastoralism. Pastoralism 1, 325–326.
Harris, R. B., Wang, W. Y., Badinqiuying, , Smith, A. T., and Bedunah, D. J. (2015). Herbivory and competition of Tibetan steppe vegetation in winter pasture: effects of livestock exclosure and plateau pika reduction. PLoS One 10, e0132897.
| Herbivory and competition of Tibetan steppe vegetation in winter pasture: effects of livestock exclosure and plateau pika reduction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 26208005PubMed |
Hilbert, D. W., Swift, D. M., Detling, J. K., and Dyer, M. I. (1981). Relative growth rates and the grazing optimization hypothesis. Oecologia 51, 14–18.
| Relative growth rates and the grazing optimization hypothesis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Holzner, W., and Kreichbaum, M. (2001). Pastures in south and central Tibet (China): probable causes of pasture degradation. Die Bodenkultur 52, 37–44.
Hutchinson, M. F. (1995). Interpolating mean rainfall using thin plate smoothing splines. International Journal of Geographical Information Science 9, 385–403.
| Interpolating mean rainfall using thin plate smoothing splines.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hutchinson, M. F. (2001). ‘ANUSPLIN version 4.2. User Guide.’ (Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, Australian National University: Canberra, ACT.)
Hutchinson, M. F., McKenney, D. W., Lawrence, K., Pedlar, J. H., Hopkinson, R. F., Milewska, E., and Papadopol, P. (2009). Development and testing of Canada-wide interpolated spatial models of daily minimum-maximum temperature and precipitation for 1961–2003. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 48, 725–741.
| Development and testing of Canada-wide interpolated spatial models of daily minimum-maximum temperature and precipitation for 1961–2003.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Immerzeel, W. W., van Beek, L. P. H., and Bierkens, M. F. P. (2010). Climate change will affect the Asian water towers. Science 328, 1382–1385.
| Climate change will affect the Asian water towers.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXntVyhtLY%3D&md5=cb34acfe05d17ce818cedf905dce8977CAS | 20538947PubMed |
Lai, C. H., and Smith, A. T. (2003). Keystone status of plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae): effect of control on biodiversity of native birds. Biodiversity and Conservation 12, 1901–1912.
| Keystone status of plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae): effect of control on biodiversity of native birds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Levine, N. E. (1998). From nomads to ranchers: managing pasture among ethnic Tibetans in Sichuan. In: ‘Development, Society and Environment in Tibet, Proceedings of the Seventh Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies’. (Eds G. E. Graz and G. E. Clarke.) pp. 69–119. (Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenchasften: Vienna, Austria.)
Li, M. S. (1994). Characteristics and rational exploitation of Tibet’s land resources. Journal of Natural Resources 9, 51–57.
Li, X. L., Gao, J., Brierley, G., Qiao, Y. M., Zhang, J., and Yang, Y. W. (2013). Rangeland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau: implications for rehabilitation. Land Degradation & Development 24, 72–80.
| Rangeland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau: implications for rehabilitation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXitVOisbs%3D&md5=312108d8ad29462cf02e520960a5a1a4CAS |
Liu, R. T. (1986). ‘Aksai Kazak Autonomous County Grassland Resources and Planning.’ (Gansu Province Aksai Kazak Autonomous County Agricultural Planning Office: Gansu, China.) [in Chinese]
Liu, Y. S. (1995). International hunting and the involvement of local people, Dulan, Qinghai, People’s Republic of China. In: ‘Integrating People and Wildlife for a Sustainable Future’. (Eds J. A. Bissonette and P. R. Krausman.) pp. 63–67. (The Wildlife Society: Bethesda, MD.)
Liu, Q. X., Harris, R. B., Wang, X. M., and Wang, Z. H. (2007). Home range size and overlap of Tibetan foxes (Vulpes ferrilata) in Dulan County, Qinghai Province. Acta Theriologica Sinica 27, 370–375.
Liu, Q. X., Harris, R. B., and Wang, X. M. (2010). Food habits of Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilata) in the Kunlun Mountains, Qinghai Province, China. Mammalian Biology 75, 283–286.
| Food habits of Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilata) in the Kunlun Mountains, Qinghai Province, China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McBeath, J. H., and McBeath, J. (2010). ‘Environmental Change and Food Security in China.’ (Springer Dordrecht: Heidelberg, Germany.)
McNaughton, S. J. (1983). Compensatory plant growth as a response to herbivory. Oikos 40, 329–336.
| Compensatory plant growth as a response to herbivory.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Miller, D. J., Bedunah, D. J., Pletscher, D. H., and Jackson, R. M. (1992). From open range to fences: changes in the range-livestock industry on the Tibetan Plateau and implications for development planning and wildlife conservation. In: ‘Proceedings of the 1992 International Rangeland Development Symposium’. (Eds G. K. Perrier and C. W. Gay.) pp. 95–109. (Society for Range Management: Littleton, CO.)
NRC (1994). ‘Rangeland Health: New Methods to Classify, Inventory, and Monitor Rangelands.’ (National Academies Press: Washington, DC.)
Richard, C., Yan, Z. L., and Du, G. Z. (2006). ‘The Paradox of the Individual Household Responsibility System in the Grasslands of the Tibetan Plateau, China.’ USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMPS-P-39. (USDA Forest Service: Fort Collins, CO.)
Schaller, G. B. (1998). ‘Wildlife of the Tibetan Steppe.’ (University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL.)
SEPA (State Environmental Protection Agency Nature Reserve Bureau) (2007). Report on environmental 2006: Grasslands. Available at: www.mep.gov.cn (accessed 18 June 2007)[in Chinese]
Shang, Z. H., Gibb, M. J., Leiber, F., Ismail, M., Ding, L. M., Guo, X. S., and Long, R. J. (2014). The sustainable development of grassland-livestock systems on the Tibetan plateau: problems, strategies and prospects. The Rangeland Journal 36, 267–296.
| The sustainable development of grassland-livestock systems on the Tibetan plateau: problems, strategies and prospects.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Shapiro, J. (2001). ‘Mao’s War against Nature: Politics and the Environment in Revolutionary China.’ (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)
Shen, Y. Y., Ma, Y. S., and Li, Q. Y. (2004). Grassland restoration in Dari County, Qinghai Province. In: ‘Implementing the Natural Forest Protection Program and the Sloping Lands Conversion Programs: Lessons and Policy Implications’. (Eds E. Katsigris, J. Xu and T. A. White.) pp. 303–40. (Beijing Forestry Publishing House: Beijing, China.)
Shi, Y. Z. (1983). On the influences of rangeland vegetation on the density of plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae). Acta Theriologica Sinica 3, 181–187.
Smith, A. T., and Foggin, J. M. (1999). The plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) is a keystone species for biodiversity on the Tibetan Plateau. Animal Conservation 2, 235–240.
| The plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) is a keystone species for biodiversity on the Tibetan Plateau.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Smith, A. T., Formozov, N. A., Hoffmann, R. S., Zheng, C. L., and Erbajeva, M. A. (1990). The pikas. In: ‘Rabbits, Hares, and Pikas: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan’. (Eds J. A. Chapman and J. E. C. Flux.) pp. 14–60. (IUCN: Gland, Switzerland.)
Smith, A. T., Zahler, P., and Hinds, L. A. (2006). Ineffective and unsustainable poisoning of native small mammals in temperate Asia: a classic case of the science-policy divide. In: ‘Conservation Biology in Asia’. (Eds J. A. McNeely, T. M. McCarthy, A. T. Smith, L. Olsvig-Whittaker and E. D. Wikramanayake.) pp. 285–293. (Society for Conservation Biology, Asia Section and Resources Himalaya Foundation: Kathmandu, Nepal.)
State Council 2002
Wang, Y. B., Wang, G. X., Sheng, Y. P., and Wang, W. L. (2005). Degradation of the eco-environmental system in alpine meadow on the Tibetan plateau. Journal of Glaciology and Geocyrology 27, 634–640.
Wangdwei, M., Steele, B., and Harris, R. B. (2013). Demographic responses of plateau pikas to vegetation cover and land use in the Tibetan Autonomous Region, China. Journal of Mammalogy 94, 1077–1086.
| Demographic responses of plateau pikas to vegetation cover and land use in the Tibetan Autonomous Region, China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Williams, D. M. (2002). ‘Beyond Great Walls: Environment, Identity, and Development on the Chinese Grasslands of Inner Mongolia.’ (Stanford University Press: Stanford, CA.)
Wilson, M. C., and Smith, A. T. (2015). The pika and the watershed: the impact of small mammal poisoning on the ecohydrology of the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau. Ambio 44, 16–22.
| The pika and the watershed: the impact of small mammal poisoning on the ecohydrology of the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 25331028PubMed |
Wu, N., and Yan, Z. L. (2002). Climate variability and social vulnerability on the Tibetan Plateau: dilemmas on the road to pastoral reform. Erdkunde 56, 2–14.
| Climate variability and social vulnerability on the Tibetan Plateau: dilemmas on the road to pastoral reform.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wu, N., Yan, Z. L., and Lu, T. (2012). Enclosure and resettlement in the eastern Tibetan Plateau: dilemma of pastoral development during the last three decades. In: ‘Pastoral Practices in High Asia: Agency of ‘Development’ Effect by Modernization, Resettlement and Transformation’. (Ed. H. Kreutzmann.) pp. 291–306. (Springer Dordrecht: Heidelberg, Germany.)
Xu, J., Grumbine, R. E., Shrestha, A., Eriksson, M., Yang, X., Wang, Y., and Wilkes, A. (2009). The melting Himalayas: cascading effects of climate change on water, biodiversity, and livelihoods. Conservation Biology 23, 520–530.
| The melting Himalayas: cascading effects of climate change on water, biodiversity, and livelihoods.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXivVagtr0%3D&md5=5781df1bc482b56fffd0755d2836b932CAS | 22748090PubMed |
Yan, J. P. (2001). ‘Strategies and Countermeasures of China’s Great Western Development Strategy.’ (Science Press: Beijing, China.) [in Chinese]
Yan, Z. L., Wu, N., Dorji, Y., and Ru, J. (2005). A review of rangeland privatization and its implications in the Tibetan Plateau, China. Nomadic Peoples 9, 31–51.
| A review of rangeland privatization and its implications in the Tibetan Plateau, China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yeh, E. T. (2005). Green governmentality and pastoralism in western China: ‘Converting pastures to grasslands’. Nomadic Peoples 9, 9–30.
| Green governmentality and pastoralism in western China: ‘Converting pastures to grasslands’.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yeh, E. T. (2009). Greening western China: a critical view. Geoforum 40, 884–894.
| Greening western China: a critical view.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yeh, E. T., and Gaerrang, (2011). Tibetan pastoralism in neo-liberalising China: continuity and change in Gouli. Area 43, 165–172.
| Tibetan pastoralism in neo-liberalising China: continuity and change in Gouli.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Yonten Nyima, and Yeh, E. (in press). Environmental issues and conflict in Tibet. In: ‘Ethnic Conflict in Western China’. (Eds B. Hillman and G. Tuttle.) (Columbia University Press: New York.)
Zhang, H. F., Liu, F. G., Zhou, Q., and Duo, H. R. (2004). Degradation mechanism of the grass in Qinghai Plateau and its prevention and control countermeasures. Ziran Zaihai Xuebao 13, 115–120.
Zhou, L., Wang, Q. J., Zhao, J., and Wang, Q. (1995). Studies on optimum stocking intensity in pasturelands of alpine meadow. I. stocking intensity to maximize production of Tibetan sheep. In: ‘Alpine Meadow Ecosystem 4’. pp. 365–375. (Science Press: Beijing, China.) [in Chinese]
Zhou, H. K., Zhou, L., Zhao, X. Q., Liu, W., Yan, Z. L., and Shi, Y. (2003). Degradation process and integrated treatment of ‘black soil beach’ grasslands in the source regions of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers. Chinese Journal of Ecology 22, 51–55.
