Free Standard AU & NZ Shipping For All Book Orders Over $80!
Register      Login
The Rangeland Journal The Rangeland Journal Society
Journal of the Australian Rangeland Society
Shopping Cart: ( empty )
You are here: Home > Journals > RJ > RJ07052
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Contents Vol 30(1)

Managing arid zone natural resources in Australia for spatial and temporal variability – an approach from first principles

Mark Stafford Smith A C and Ryan R. J. McAllister B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, PO Box 284, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.

B CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, 306 Carmody Road, St Lucia, Qld 4067, Australia.

C Corresponding author. Email: mark.staffordsmith@csiro.au

The Rangeland Journal 30(1) 15-27 https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ07052
Submitted: 13 July 2007  Accepted: 6 September 2007   Published: 1 April 2008

Abstract

Outback Australia is characterised by variability in its resource drivers, particularly and most fundamentally, rainfall. Its biota has adapted to cope with this variability. The key strategies taken by desert organisms (and their weaknesses) help to identify the likely impacts of natural resource management by pastoralists and others, and potential remedies for these impacts. The key strategies can be summarised as five individual species’ responses (ephemerals, in-situ persistents, refuging persistents, nomads and exploiters), plus four key emergent modes of organisation involving multiple species that contribute to species diversity (facilitation, self-organising communities, asynchronous and micro-allopatric co-existence). A key feature of the difference between the strategies is the form of a reserve, whether roots and social networks for Persistents, or propagules or movement networks for Ephemerals and Nomads. With temporally and spatially varying drivers of soil moisture inputs, many of these strategies and their variants can co-exist.

While these basic strategies are well known, a systematic analysis from first principles helps to generalise our understanding of likely impacts of management, if this changes the pattern of variability or interrupts the process of allocation to reserves. Nine resulting ‘weak points’ are identified in the system, and the implications of these are discussed for natural resource management and policy aimed at production or conservation locally, or the regional integration of the two.

Additional keywords: biodiversity management, deserts, drylands, grazing management, life-history strategy, rangelands.


Acknowledgements

The work reported in this publication was supported by Land and Water Australia, CSIRO, and funding from the Australian Government Cooperative Research Centres Programme through the Desert Knowledge CRC (www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au); the views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the views of Desert Knowledge CRC or its Participants. We are grateful for the review comments of Leigh Hunt, Steve Morton and Julian Reid. This is Publication No. 2 in the development of a Science of Desert Living.


References


Allan R. J. (1991). Australasia. In: ‘Teleconnections linking worldwide climate anomalies’. (Eds R. Glantz, R. Katz, and N. Nicholls.) pp. 73–120. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.)

Anderson V. J., Hodgkinson K. C. (1997) Grass-mediated capture of resource flows and the maintenance of banded mulga in a semi-arid woodland. Australian Journal of Botany 45, 331–342.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Anthelme F., Michalet R., Saadou M. (2007) Positive associations involving the tussock grass Panicum turgidum Forssk. in the Air-Tenere Reserve, Niger. Journal of Arid Environments 68, 348–362.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Ash A. J. , Corfield J. P. , and Ksiksi T. (2001). ‘The Ecograze Project – developing guidelines to better manage grazing country.’ (CSIRO: Townsville.)

Barker W. R. , and Greenslade P. J. M. (1982). ‘Evolution of the flora and fauna of arid Australia.’ (Peacock Publications: Adelaide.)

Behnke R. H. , and Scoones I. (1993). ‘Rethinking range ecology: implications for rangeland management in Africa.’ (Commonwealth Secretariat, Overseas Development Inst. and International Inst. for Environment and Development: London.)

Biograze (2000). ‘Biograze: waterpoints and wildlife.’ (CSIRO: Alice Springs.)

Botterill L. , and Fisher M. (2003). ‘Beyond drought in Australia: people, policy and perspectives.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Brandle R., Moseby K. E. (1999) Comparative ecology of two populations of Pseudomys australis in northern South Australia. Wildlife Research 26, 541–564.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Byers J. E., Cuddington K., Jones C. G., Talley T. S., Hastings A., Lambrinos J. G., Crooks J. A., Wilson W. G. (2006) Using ecosystem engineers to restore ecological systems. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 21, 493–500.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Caldwell M. M., Dawson T. E., Richards J. H. (1998) Hydraulic lift: consequences of water efflux from the roots of plants. Oecologia 113, 151–161.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Campbell T. , and Hacker R. (2000). ‘The glove-box guide to tactical grazing management for the semi-arid woodlands.’ (NSW Agriculture: Sydney.)

Chesson P., Gebauer R. L. E., Schwinning S., Huntly N., Wiegand K., Ernest M. S. K., Sher A., Novoplansky A., Weltzin J. F. (2004) Resource pulses, species interactions, and diversity maintenance in arid and semi-arid environments. Oecologia 141, 236–253.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | PubMed | open url image1

Cingolani A. M., Noy-Meir I., Diaz S. (2005) Grazing effects on rangeland diversity: a synthesis of contemporary models. Ecological Applications 15, 757–773.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Clarke P. J., Latz P. K., Albrecht D. E. (2005) Long-term changes in semi-arid vegetation: Invasion of an exotic perennial grass has larger effects than rainfall variability. Journal of Vegetation Science 16, 237–248.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Clissold F. J., Sanson G. D., Read J. (2006) The paradoxical effects of nutrient ratios and supply rates on an outbreaking insect herbivore, the Australian plague locust. Journal of Animal Ecology 75, 1000–1013.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | PubMed | open url image1

Cole J. (1994). Better pasture plans reviving Hay rangeland. In: ‘The Land’. (5 May 1994) p. 23. (Rural Press: Sydney.)

DEH (2006). ‘Gawler Ranges National Park management plan.’ (Department for Environment and Heritage: Adelaide.)

Dickman C. R., Mahon P. S., Masters P., Gibson D. F. (1999) Long-term dynamics of rodent populations in arid Australia: the influence of rainfall. Wildlife Research 26, 389–403.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Dunkerley D. L. (2002) Infiltration rates and soil moisture in a groved mulga community near Alice Springs, arid central Australia: evidence for complex internal rainwater redistribution in a runoff–runon landscape. Journal of Arid Environments 51, 199–219.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Edwards G. P., Eldridge S. R., Wurst D., Berman D. M., Garbin V. (2001) Movement patterns of female feral camels in central and northern Australia. Wildlife Research 28, 283–289.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Edwards G. P., Pople A. R., Saalfeld K., Caley P. (2004) Introduced mammals in Australian rangelands: future threats and the role of monitoring programmes in management strategies. Austral Ecology 29, 40–50.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Eldridge D. J. (1999) Distribution and floristics of moss- and lichen-dominated soil crusts in a patterned Callitris glaucophylla woodland in eastern Australia. Acta Oecologica – International Journal of Ecology 20, 159–170.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Eldridge D. J., Rath D. (2002) Hip holes: kangaroo (Macropus spp.) resting sites modify the physical and chemical environment of woodland soils. Austral Ecology 27, 527–536.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Esteban J., Fairen V. (2006) Self-organized formation of banded vegetation patterns in semi-arid regions: a model. Ecological Complexity 3, 109–118.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Facelli J. M., Temby A. M. (2002) Multiple effects of shrubs on annual plant communities in arid lands of South Australia. Austral Ecology 27, 422–432.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Fisher A. , Hunt L. , James C. , Landsberg J. , Phelps D. , Smyth A. , and Watson I. (2004). Review of total grazing pressure management issues and priorities for biodiversity conservation in rangelands: a resource to aid NRM planning. Report No. 3. Desert Knowledge CRC and Tropical Savannas Management CRC, Alice Springs.

Flores J., Jurado E. (2003) Are nurse-protégé interactions more common among plants from arid environments? Journal of Vegetation Science 14, 911–916.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Foran B. D. , Friedel M. H. , MacLeod N. D. , Stafford Smith D. M. , and Wilson A. D. (1990). ‘A policy for the future of Australia’s rangelands.’ (CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology: Canberra.)

Friedel M. H., Foran B. D., Stafford Smith D. M. (1990) Where the creeks run dry or ten feet high: pastoral management in arid Australia. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 16, 185–194. open url image1

Giladi I. (2006) Choosing benefits or partners: a review of the evidence for the evolution of myrmecochory. Oikos 112, 481–492.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Gilfillan S. L. (2001) An ecological study of a population of Pseudantechinus macdonnellensis (Marsupialia: Dasyuridae) in central Australia. II. Population dynamics and movements. Wildlife Research 28, 481–492.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Grice A. C. (2006) The impacts of invasive plant species on the biodiversity of Australian rangelands. The Rangeland Journal 28, 27–35.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Hacker R. B., Hodgkinson K. C., Melville G. J., Bean J., Clipperton S. P. (2006) Death model for tussock perennial grasses: thresholds for grazing-induced mortality of mulga Mitchell grass (Thyridolepis mitchelliana). The Rangeland Journal 28, 105–114.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Hall W. B., McKeon G. M., Carter J. O., Day K. A., Howden S. M., Scanlan J. C., Johnston P. W., Burrows W. H. (1998) Climate change in Queensland’s grazing lands: II. An assessment of the impact on animal production from native pastures. The Rangeland Journal 20, 177–205.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Haythornthwaite A. S., Dickman C. R. (2006) Distribution, abundance, and individual strategies: a multi-scale analysis of dasyurid marsupials in arid central Australia. Ecography 29, 285–300.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Hesse P. P., McTainsh G. H. (2003) Australian dust deposits: modern processes and the Quaternary record. Quaternary Science Reviews 22, 2007–2035.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Higgins P. J. (1999). ‘Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic Birds. Parrots to Dollarbird, Vol. 4.’ (Oxford University Press: Melbourne.)

HilleRisLambers R., Rietkerk M., van den Bosch F., Prins H. H. T., de Kroon H. (2001) Vegetation pattern formation in semi-arid grazing systems. Ecology 82, 50–61. open url image1

Hunt L. P. (2001) Heterogeneous grazing causes local extinction of edible perennial shrubs: a matrix analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology 38, 238–252.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

James C. D., Landsberg J., Morton S. R. (1999) Provision of watering points in the Australian arid zone: a review of effects on biota. Journal of Arid Environments 41, 87–121.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Jenkins K. M., Boulton A. J., Ryder D. S. (2005) A common parched future? Research and management of Australian arid-zone floodplain wetlands. Hydrobiologia 552, 57–73.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Johnston P. W., Tannock P. R., Beale I. F. (1996) Objective ‘safe’ grazing capacities for south–west Queensland, Australia: model application and evaluation. The Rangeland Journal 18, 259–269.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Jones P. (2001) Sandalwood re-visited in Western Australia. Sandalwood Research Newsletter 12, 3–4. open url image1

Jones M. , and James C. (2006). Review of desert enterprises reliant on natural and cultural resources. Report No. 25. Desert Knowledge CRC, Alice Springs.

Jurado E. (1990). Seed and seedling biology of central Australian plants. PhD thesis, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.

Kingsford R. T., Norman F. I. (2002) Australian waterbirds – products of the continent’s ecology. Emu 102, 47–69.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Kratz T. K., Benson B. J., Blood E. R., Cunningham G. L., Dahlgren R. A. (1991) The influence of landscape position on temporal variability in four North American ecosystems. American Naturalist 138, 355–378.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Landsberg J., James C. D., Morton S. R., Müller W. J., Stol J. (2003) Abundance and composition of plant species along grazing gradients in Australian rangelands. Journal of Applied Ecology 40, 1008–1024.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Lange R. T., Nicolson A. D., Nicolson D. A. (1984) Vegetation management of chenopod rangelands in South Australia. Australian Rangeland Journal 6, 46–54.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Lejeune O., Couteron P., Lefever R. (1999) Short range co-operativity competing with long range inhibition explains vegetation patterns. Acta Oecologica – International Journal of Ecology 20, 171–183.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Lindenmayer D. B., Franklin J. F., Fischer J. (2006) General management principles and a checklist of strategies to guide forest biodiversity conservation. Biological Conservation 131, 433–445.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Ludwig J. A., Tongway D. J. (1996) Rehabilitation of semiarid landscapes in Australia. 2. Restoring vegetation patches. Restoration Ecology 4, 398–406.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Ludwig J. , Tongway D. , Freudenberger D. , Noble J. , and Hodgkinson K. (1997). ‘Landscape ecology, function and management: principles from Australia’s rangelands.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Ludwig J. A., Tongway D. J., Bastin G. N., James C. D. (2004) Monitoring ecological indicators of rangeland functional integrity and their relation to biodiversity at local to regional scales. Austral Ecology 29, 108–120.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Ludwig J. A., Wilcox B. P., Breshears D. D., Tongway D. J., Imeson A. C. (2005) Vegetation patches and runoff-erosion as interacting ecohydrological processes in semiarid landscapes. Ecology 86, 288–297.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

LWA (2006). ‘Insights: case studies on how woolgrowers are successfully managing pastoral country for profit and sustainability.’ (Land and Water Australia: Canberra.)

Marree SCB District Plan (1997). ‘Marree soil conservation board district plan.’ (Primary Industries and Resources SA: Adelaide.)

McAllister R. R. J. , and Stafford Smith D. M. (2006). The science of desert living. In: ‘Proceedings of the 14th biennial Australian Rangeland Society Conference’. (Ed. P. Erkelenz) pp. 258–261. (Australian Rangeland Society: Renmark.)

McCormack J. (1989) Stocking rates and land care: the Merino Downs case. Australian Rangelands Society Newsletter 89, 12–14. open url image1

Morrissey J. G., O’Connor R. E. Y. (1989) 28 years of station management, ‘fair use and a fair go’. W.A. Dept. of Agriculture Pastoral Memo (Carnarvon) 13, 2–9. open url image1

Morse J. (2005). Bush resources: opportunities for Aboriginal enterprise in central Australia. Report No. 2. Desert Knowledge CRC, Alice Springs.

Morton S. R., Christian K. A. (1994) Ecological observations on the spinifex ant, Ochetellus flavipes (Kirby) (Hymenoptera, Formicidae), of Australia northern arid zone. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society 33, 309–316.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Morton S. R., James C. D. (1988) The diversity and abundance of lizards in arid Australia: a new hypothesis. American Naturalist 132, 237–256.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Morton S. R. , Short J. , and Barker R. D. (1995 a). ‘Refugia for biological diversity in arid and semi-arid Australia.’ (Biodiversity Unit, Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories: Canberra.)

Morton S. R., Stafford Smith D. M., Friedel M. H., Griffin G. F., Pickup G. (1995b) The stewardship of arid Australia: ecology and landscape management. Journal of Environmental Management 43, 195–217.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Mound L. A. (2004) Australian Thysanoptera – biological diversity and a diversity of studies. Australian Journal of Entomology 43, 248–257.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Müller B., Frank K., Wissel C. (2007) Relevance of rest periods in non-equilibrium rangeland systems – a modelling analysis. Agricultural Systems 92, 295–317.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

NEGKLCD (1993). ‘Mulga, merinos and managers: a handbook of recommended pastoral management practices.’ (North Eastern Goldfields and Kalgoorlie Land Conservation Districts: Kalgoorlie.)

Noble J. C. (1991) On ratites and their interactions with plants. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 64, 85–118. open url image1

Norbury G. L., Norbury D. C., Oliver A. J. (1994) Facultative behaviour in unpredictable environments – mobility of red kangaroos in arid Western Australia. Journal of Animal Ecology 63, 410–418.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Noy-Meir I. (1973) Desert ecosystems: environment and producers. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4, 25–51.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Noy-Meir I. (1974) Desert ecosystems: higher trophic levels. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5, 195–213.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

NSW NPWS (1996). ‘Sturt National Park plan of management.’ (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service: Sydney.)

O’Connor P. J., Smith S. E., Smith F. A. (2001) Arbuscular mycorrhi-zal associations in the southern Simpson Desert. Australian Journal of Botany 49, 493–499.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Orians G. H., Milewski A. V. (2007) Ecology of Australia: the effects of nutrient-poor soils and intense fires. Biological Reviews 82, 393–423.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | PubMed | open url image1

Pantastico-Caldas M., Venable D. L. (1993) Competition in two species of desert annuals along a topographic gradient. Ecology 74, 2192–2203.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Partridge I. (1999). ‘Managing grazing in northern Australia – a grazier’s guide.’ (Department of Primary Industries: Brisbane.)

Pavey C. R., Goodship N., Geiser F. (2003) Home range and spatial organisation of rock-dwelling carnivorous marsupial, Pseudantechinus macdonnellensis. Wildlife Research 30, 135–142.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Pickup G. (1985) The erosion cell – a geomorphic approach to landscape classification in range assessment. Australian Rangeland Journal 7, 114–121.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Purvis J. R. (1986) Nurture the land: my philosophies of pastoral management in central Australia. Australian Rangeland Journal 8, 110–117.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Quirk M. , and O’Reagain P. (2003). Managing grazing lands in a variable climate. In: ‘Science for drought: proceedings of the national drought forum’. (Eds R. Stone and I. Partridge.) pp. 101–105. (Queensland Department of Primary Industries: Brisbane.)

Reid N., Stafford Smith M. (2000) Population dynamics of an arid zone mistletoe (Amyema preissii, Loranthaceae) and its host Acacia victoriae (Mimosaceae). Australian Journal of Botany 48, 45–58.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Reynolds J. F., Kemp P. R., Ogle K., Fernández R. J. (2004) Modifying the ‘pulse-reserve’ paradigm for deserts of North America: precipitation pulses, soil water, and plant responses. Oecologia 141, 194–210.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | PubMed | open url image1

Robinson B. S., Bamforth S. S., Dobson P. J. (2002) Density and diversity of protozoa in some arid Australian soils. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 49, 449–453.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | PubMed | open url image1

Roshier D. A., Robertson A. I., Kingsford R. T., Green D. G. (2001) Continental-scale interactions with temporary resources may explain the paradox of large populations of desert waterbirds in Australia. Landscape Ecology 16, 547–556.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Ross M. A. (1969) An integrated approach to the ecology of arid Australia. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 4, 67–81. open url image1

Salvin S. , Bourke M. , and Byrne T. (Eds) (2004). The new crop industries handbook. RIRDC Publ. 04/125. RIRDC, Canberra.

Sandalwood Research Newsletter (2007). Available at: www.jcu.edu.au/school/tropbiol/srn/ (accessed 30 July 2007).

Schlesinger C. (2000). The effect of a temporally variable environment and grazing on ground-active lizards in mulga and shrublands of central Australia. PhD thesis, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia.

Schulke B. (2007). Beefing up grazing land: presentation to Beef-Up Forum, Biloela, 15 Feb 2007. Meat and Livestock Australia: Brisbane. Available at: www.mla.com.au/TopicHierarchy/IndustryPrograms/NorthernBeef/BeefUp+forums/Biloela (accessed 30 June 2007).

Schwinning S., Sala O. E. (2004) Hierarchy of responses to resource pulses in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. Oecologia 141, 211–220.
| PubMed |
open url image1

Schwinning S., Sala O. E., Loik M. E., Ehleringer J. R. (2004) Thresholds, memory, and seasonality: understanding pulse dynamics in arid/semi-arid ecosystems. Oecologia 141, 191–193.
| PubMed |
open url image1

Stafford Smith M. (2008) The ‘desert syndrome’ – causally-linked factors that characterise outback Australia. The Rangeland Journal 30, 3–14.
| Crossref |
open url image1

Stafford Smith M. (2003). Living in the Australian environment. In: ‘Beyond drought in Australia: people, policy and perspectives’. (Eds L. Botterill and M. Fisher.) pp. 9–20. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)

Stafford Smith D. M., Morton S. R. (1990) A framework for the ecology of arid Australia. Journal of Arid Environments 18, 255–278. open url image1

Stafford Smith M. , and Ash A. (2006). High conservation value in the rangelands. Report of a workshop for the Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage. Report No. 19. (Desert Knowledge CRC: Alice Springs.)

Stafford Smith M., Morton S. R., Ash A. J. (2000) Towards sustainable pastoralism in Australia’s rangelands. Australian Journal of Environmental Management 7, 190–203. open url image1

Stafford Smith D. M., McKeon G. M., Watson I. W., Henry B. K., Stone G. S., Hall W. B., Howden S. M. (2007) Learning from episodes of degradation and recovery in variable Australian rangelands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of USA 104, 20690–20695.
| Crossref |
open url image1

Stokes C. J., McAllister R. R. J., Ash A. J. (2006) Fragmentation of Australian rangelands: processes, benefits and risks of changing patterns of land use. The Rangeland Journal 28, 83–96.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Sullivan S. , Kraatz M. , Tapsell S. , Tubman W. , and O’Donnell K. (2006). ‘Perspectives on managing grazing country: graziers talk about successfully managing their country, Victoria River District.’ (Tropical Savannas CRC: Darwin.)

Tongway D. J. , and Hindley N. L. (2004). ‘Landscape function analysis manual: procedures for monitoring and assessing landscapes with special reference to minesites and rangelands. Version 3.1.’ (CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems: Canberra.)

Tongway D. J., Ludwig J. A. (1994) Small-scale resource heterogeneity in semi-arid landscapes. Pacific Conservation Biology 1, 201–208. open url image1

Tremblay P. (2008) Protected areas and development in arid Australia – challenges to regional tourism. The Rangeland Journal 30, 67–75. open url image1

Turner D., Ostendorf B., Lewis M. (2008) An introduction to patterns of fire in arid and semi-arid Australia, 1998–2004. The Rangeland Journal 30, 95–107. open url image1

Vetter S. (2005) Rangelands at equilibrium and non-equilibrium: recent developments in the debate. Journal of Arid Environments 62, 321–341.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Westoby M. (1980) Elements of a theory of vegetation dynamics in arid rangelands. Israeli Journal of Botany 28, 169–194. open url image1

White W. B., McKeon G., Syktus J. (2003) Australian drought: the interference of multi-spectral global standing modes and travelling waves. International Journal of Climatology 23, 631–662.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Woinarski J. C. Z. (2006) Predictors of nomadism in Australian birds: a re-analysis of Allen and Saunders (2002). Ecosystems 9, 689–693.
| Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | open url image1

Zann R. A. (1996). ‘The zebra finch: a synthesis of field and laboratory studies.’ (Oxford University Press: Oxford.)