Register      Login
Marine and Freshwater Research Marine and Freshwater Research Society
Advances in the aquatic sciences
RESEARCH ARTICLE

Resilience to climate change: complex relationships among wetland hydroperiod, larval amphibians and aquatic predators in temporary wetlands

Katrin Lowe A B , J. Guy Castley A and Jean-Marc Hero A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Environmental Futures Research Institute, Griffith School of Environment, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Southport, Qld 4222, Australia.

B Corresponding author. Email: katrin.lowe@gmail.com.au

Marine and Freshwater Research 66(10) 886-899 https://doi.org/10.1071/MF14128
Submitted: 12 May 2014  Accepted: 5 October 2014   Published: 1 April 2015

Abstract

Amphibians that utilise temporary wetlands with unpredictable hydrology are living on the edge, maintaining viable populations under variable climatic conditions. Information on their breeding ecology will provide insight into their adaptive capacity and resilience to climate change. The environmental factors influencing breeding of a temporary wetland breeding frog (Litoria olongburensis) from eastern Australia were examined over two breeding seasons from August 2009 to March 2011. The influence of biotic and abiotic wetland characteristics on the abundance and seasonality of L. olongburensis aquatic larvae was quantified throughout the latitudinal range of the species. Substantial variation in yearly precipitation resulted in changes to the timing of breeding, and patterns of tadpole and predator abundance, which also varied along a hydroperiod gradient. Litoria olongburensis displayed adaptive strategies, including breeding when hydrological conditions were likely to last longest, and short time to hatching and metamorphosis. Concentrating breeding efforts early during wetland filling coincided with low predator densities. These pre-adaptations may reflect an adaptive capacity to predicted changes in frequency and reliability of precipitation as a result of climate change, and may apply to other temporary wetland species. Their conservation depends on preserving wetlands with a variety of hydroperiods within a landscape matrix.

Additional keywords: adaptation, frog, Litoria olongburensis, vulnerability, wallum heath.


References

Akaike, H. (1973). Information theory and extension of the maximum likelihood principle. In ‘Proceedings of the 2nd International Syposium on Information Theory’, Budapest, Hungary. (Eds N. Petrov and F. Csaki.) pp. 267–281. (Akademiai Kiado: Budapest, Hungary.)

Babbitt, K. J. (2005). The relative importance of wetland size and hydroperiod for amphibians in southern New Hampshire, USA. Wetlands Ecology and Management 13, 269–279.
The relative importance of wetland size and hydroperiod for amphibians in southern New Hampshire, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Babbitt, K. J., Barber, M. J., and Tarr, T. L. (2003). Patterns of larval amphibian distribution along a wetland hydroperiod gradient. Canadian Journal of Zoology 81, 1539–1552.
Patterns of larval amphibian distribution along a wetland hydroperiod gradient.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Baldwin, R. F., Calhoun, A. J. K., and deMaynadier, P. G. (2006). The significance of hydroperiod and stand maturity for pool-breeding amphibians in forested landscapes. Canadian Journal of Zoology-Revue Canadienne De Zoologie 84, 1604–1615.
The significance of hydroperiod and stand maturity for pool-breeding amphibians in forested landscapes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Barton, K. (2012). MuMIn: multi-model inference. R package, ver.1.7.2. Available at http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=MuMIn [Verified 13 November 2014].

Blaustein, A. R., Walls, S. C., Bancroft, B. A., Lawler, J. J., Searle, C. L., and Gervasi, S. S. (2010). Direct and indirect effects of climate change on amphibian populations. Diversity 2, 281–313.
Direct and indirect effects of climate change on amphibian populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Brooks, R. T. (2009). Potential impacts of global climate change on the hydrology and ecology of ephemeral freshwater systems of the forests of the northeastern United States. Climatic Change 95, 469–483.
Potential impacts of global climate change on the hydrology and ecology of ephemeral freshwater systems of the forests of the northeastern United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Burnham, K. P., and Anderson, D. R. (2002). ‘Model Selection and Multimodel Inference: a Practical Information-theoretic Approach.’ (Springer-Verlag: New York.)

Cai, W., Crimp, S., Jones, R., McInnes, K., Durack, P., Cechet, B., Bathols, J., and Wilkinson, S. (2005). Climate change in Queensland under enhanced greenhouse conditions. Report 2004–2005. CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Melbourne, Vic.

Carey, C., and Alexander, M. A. (2003). Climate change and amphibian declines: is there a link? Diversity & Distributions 9, 111–121.
Climate change and amphibian declines: is there a link?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Cayuela, H., Besnard, A., Bechet, A., Devictor, V., and Olivier, A. (2012). Reproductive dynamics of three amphibian species in Mediterranean wetlands: the role of local precipitation and hydrological regimes. Freshwater Biology 57, 2629–2640.
Reproductive dynamics of three amphibian species in Mediterranean wetlands: the role of local precipitation and hydrological regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Chiew, F. H. S., and McMahon, T. A. (2002). Modelling the impacts of climate change on Australian streamflow. Hydrological Processes 16, 1235–1245.
Modelling the impacts of climate change on Australian streamflow.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Colls, K., and Whitaker, R. (2001). ‘The Australian Weather Book.’ (Reed New Holland: Sydney.)

CSIRO (2007). Climate change in Australia: technical report 2007. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Melbourne, Vic.

Diaz-Paniagua, C. (1992). Variability in timing of larval season in an amphibian community in SW Spain. Ecography 15, 267–272.
Variability in timing of larval season in an amphibian community in SW Spain.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Donnelly, M. A., and Crump, M. L. (1998). Potential effects of climate change on two neotropical amphibian assemblages. Climatic Change 39, 541–561.
Potential effects of climate change on two neotropical amphibian assemblages.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Duarte, H., Tejedo, M., Katzenberger, M., Marangoni, F., Baldo, D., Beltran, J. F., Marti, D. A., Richter-Boix, A., and Gonzalez-Voyer, A. (2012). Can amphibians take the heat? Vulnerability to climate warming in subtropical and temperate larval amphibian communities. Global Change Biology 18, 412–421.
Can amphibians take the heat? Vulnerability to climate warming in subtropical and temperate larval amphibian communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Garden, J. G., McAlpine, C. A., and Possingham, H. P. (2010). Multi-scaled habitat considerations for conserving urban biodiversity: native reptiles and small mammals in Brisbane, Australia. Landscape Ecology 25, 1013–1028.
Multi-scaled habitat considerations for conserving urban biodiversity: native reptiles and small mammals in Brisbane, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Gillespie, G., and Hero, J. M. (1999). Potential impacts of introduced fish and fish translocations on Australian amphibians. In ‘Declines and Disappearences of Australian Frogs’. (Ed. A. Campbell.) pp. 131–144. (Environment Australia: Canberra.)

Griffith, S. J., Bale, C., and Wilson, R. (2003). Wallum and related vegetation on the NSW North Coast: description and phytosociological analysis. Cunninghamia 8, 202–252.

Griffith, S. J., Bale, C., and Adam, P. (2008). Environmental correlates on coastal heath and allied vegetation. Australian Journal of Botany 56, 512–526.
Environmental correlates on coastal heath and allied vegetation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Griffiths, R. A. (1997). Temporary ponds as amphibian habitats. Aquatic Conservation – Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 7, 119–126.
Temporary ponds as amphibian habitats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hecnar, S. J., and McLoskey, R. T. (1997). The effects of predatory fish on amphibian species richness and distribution. Biological Conservation 79, 123–131.
The effects of predatory fish on amphibian species richness and distribution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hero, J. M., and Magnusson, W. E. (1998). Direct and indirect effects of predation on tadpole community structure in the Amazon rainforest. Australian Journal of Ecology 23, 474–482.
Direct and indirect effects of predation on tadpole community structure in the Amazon rainforest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Heyer, W. R., Mcdiarmid, R. W., and Weigmann, D. L. (1975). Tadpoles, predation and pond habits in the tropics. Biotropica 7, 100–111.
Tadpoles, predation and pond habits in the tropics.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hines, H. B., and Meyer, E. A. (2011). The frog fauna of Bribie Island: an annotated list and comparison with other Queensland dune islands. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland 117, 261–274.

Hines, H., Mahony, M., and McDonald, K. (1999). An assessment of frog declines in wet subtropical Australia. In ‘Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs’. (Ed. A. Campbell.) pp. 44–62. (Biodiversity Group, Environment Australia: Canberra, ACT.)

Hobday, A. J., and Lough, A. M. (2011). Projected climate change in Australian marine and freshwater environments. Marine and Freshwater Research 62, 1000–1014.
Projected climate change in Australian marine and freshwater environments.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hughes, L. (2000). Biological consequences of global warming: is the signal already apparent? Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15, 56–61.
Biological consequences of global warming: is the signal already apparent?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Hurvich, C. M., and Tsai, C.-L. (1989). Regression and time series model selection in small samples. Biometrika 76, 297–307.
Regression and time series model selection in small samples.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ingram, G. J., and Corben, C. J. (1975). The frog fauna of North Stradbroke Island, with comments on the ‘acid’ frogs of the wallum. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland 86, 49–54.

Ingram, G. J., and McDonald, K. R. (1993). An update on the declines of Queensland’s frogs. In Herpetology in Australia: a Diverse Discipline’. (Eds D. Lunney and D. Ayers.) pp. 297–303. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Sydney.)

Jakob, C., Poizat, G., Veith, M., Seitz, A., and Crivelli, A. J. (2003). Breeding phenology and larval distribution of amphibians in a Mediterranean pond network with unpredictable hydrology. Hydrobiologia 499, 51–61.
Breeding phenology and larval distribution of amphibians in a Mediterranean pond network with unpredictable hydrology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Karraker, N. E., and Gibbs, J. P. (2009). Amphibian production in forested landscapes in relation to wetland hydroperiod: a case study of vernal pools and beaver ponds. Biological Conservation 142, 2293–2302.
Amphibian production in forested landscapes in relation to wetland hydroperiod: a case study of vernal pools and beaver ponds.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Kikkawa, J., Ingram, G. J., and Dwyer, P. D. (1979). The vertebrate fauna of Australian heathlands: an evolutionary perspective. In ‘Ecosystems of the World 9A. Heathlands and Related Shrublands’. (Ed. R. L. Specht.) pp. 231–279. (Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company: Amsterdam.)

Komak, S., and Crossland, M. R. (2000). An assessment of the introduced mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis holbrooki) as a predator of eggs, hatchlings and tadpoles of native and non-native anurans. Wildlife Research 27, 185–189.
An assessment of the introduced mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis holbrooki) as a predator of eggs, hatchlings and tadpoles of native and non-native anurans.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lane, S. J., and Mahony, M. J. (2002). Larval anurans with synchronous and asynchronous development periods: contrasting responses to water reduction and predator presence. Journal of Animal Ecology 71, 780–792.
Larval anurans with synchronous and asynchronous development periods: contrasting responses to water reduction and predator presence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Leips, J., McManus, M. G., and Travis, J. (2000). Response of treefrog larvae to drying ponds: comparing temporary and permanent pond breeders. Ecology 81, 2997–3008.
Response of treefrog larvae to drying ponds: comparing temporary and permanent pond breeders.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lemckert, F. (2010). Habitat relationships and presence of the threatened heath frog Litoria littlejohni (Anura: Hylidae) in central New South Wales, Australia. Endangered Species Research 11, 271–278.
Habitat relationships and presence of the threatened heath frog Litoria littlejohni (Anura: Hylidae) in central New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lewis, B. D., and Goldingay, R. L. (2005). Population monitoring of the vulnerable wallum sedge frog (Litoria olongburensis) in north-eastern New South Wales. Australian Journal of Zoology 53, 185–194.
Population monitoring of the vulnerable wallum sedge frog (Litoria olongburensis) in north-eastern New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Loman, J. (1999). Early metamorphosis in common frog Rana temporaria tadpoles at risk of drying: an experimental demonstration. Amphibia–Reptilia 20, 421–430.
Early metamorphosis in common frog Rana temporaria tadpoles at risk of drying: an experimental demonstration.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Lowe, K., and Hero, J. M. (2012). Sexual dimorphism and color polymorphism in the wallum sedge frog (Litoria olongburensis). Herpetological Review 43, 236–240.

Mac Nally, R., Horrocks, G., Lada, H., Lake, P. S., Thomson, J. R., and Taylor, A. C. (2009). Distribution of anuran amphibians in massively altered landscapes in south-eastern Australia: effects of climate change in an aridifying region. Global Ecology and Biogeography 18, 575–585.
Distribution of anuran amphibians in massively altered landscapes in south-eastern Australia: effects of climate change in an aridifying region.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Marquis, O., and Miaud, C. (2008). Variation in UV sensitivity among common frog Rana temporaria populations along an altitudinal gradient. Zoology 111, 309–317.
Variation in UV sensitivity among common frog Rana temporaria populations along an altitudinal gradient.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18495447PubMed |

McMenamin, S. K., Hadly, E. A., and Wright, C. K. (2008). Climatic change and wetland desiccation cause amphibian decline in Yellowstone National Park. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105, 16 988–16 993.
Climatic change and wetland desiccation cause amphibian decline in Yellowstone National Park.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Meyer, E., Hero, J. M., Shoo, L., and Lewis, B. (2006). National recovery plan for the wallum sedgefrog and other wallum-dependent frog species. Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, Brisbane, Report to Department of the Environment and Water Resources, Canberra.

Morey, S. R., and Reznick, D. N. (2004). The relationship between habitat permanence and larval development in California spadefoot toads: field and laboratory comparisons of developmental plasticity. Oikos 104, 172–190.
The relationship between habitat permanence and larval development in California spadefoot toads: field and laboratory comparisons of developmental plasticity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Morin, P. J., Lawler, S. P., and Johnson, E. A. (1990). Ecology and breeding phenology of larval Hyla andersonii: the disadvantages of breeding late. Ecology 71, 1590–1598.
Ecology and breeding phenology of larval Hyla andersonii: the disadvantages of breeding late.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Morrison, C., and Hero, J. M. (2003). Geographic variation in life-history characteristics of amphibians: a review. Journal of Animal Ecology 72, 270–279.
Geographic variation in life-history characteristics of amphibians: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Ovaska, K. (1997). Vulnerability of amphibians in Canada to global warming and increased solar ultraviolet radiation. In ‘Amphibians in Decline: Canadian Studies of a Global Problem’. (Ed. D. M. Green.) pp. 206–225. (Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles: Saint Louis, MO, USA.)

Parmesan, C. (2006). Ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 37, 637–669.
Ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Parmesan, C. (2007). Influences of species, latitudes and methodologies on estimates of phenological response to global warming. Global Change Biology 13, 1860–1872.
Influences of species, latitudes and methodologies on estimates of phenological response to global warming.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pechmann, J. H. K., Scott, D. E., Whitfield Gibbons, J., and Semlitsch, R. D. (1989). Influence of wetland hydroperiod on diversity and abundance of metamorphosing juvenile amphibians. Wetlands Ecology and Management 1, 3–11.
Influence of wetland hydroperiod on diversity and abundance of metamorphosing juvenile amphibians.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pehek, E. L. (1995). Competition, pH, and the ecology of larval Hyla-andersonii. Ecology 76, 1786–1793.
Competition, pH, and the ecology of larval Hyla-andersonii.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Pitt, A. L., Baldwin, R. F., Lipscomb, D. J., Brown, B. L., Hawley, J. E., Allard-Keese, C. M., and Leonard, P. B. (2012). The missing wetlands: using local ecological knowledge to find cryptic ecosystems. Biodiversity and Conservation 21, 51–63.
The missing wetlands: using local ecological knowledge to find cryptic ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

R Core Team (2012). R: a language and environment for statistical computing. (R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria.) Available at http://www.R-project.org/ [Verified 13 November 2014].

Reisinger, A., Kitching, R., Chiew, F., Hughes, L., Newton, P., Schuster, S., Tait, A., and Whetton, P. (2014). Australasia. In ‘Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’. (Eds B. Fitzharris and D. Karoly.) pp. 1371–1438. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.)

Relyea, R. A. (2007). Getting out alive: how predators affect the decision to metamorphose. Oecologia 152, 389–400.
Getting out alive: how predators affect the decision to metamorphose.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17356812PubMed |

Richter, S. C., Young, J. E., Johnson, G. N., and Seigel, R. A. (2003). Stochastic variation in reproductive success of a rare frog, Rana sevosa: implications for conservation and for monitoring amphibian populations. Biological Conservation 111, 171–177.
Stochastic variation in reproductive success of a rare frog, Rana sevosa: implications for conservation and for monitoring amphibian populations.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Richter-Boix, A., Llorente, G. A., and Montori, A. (2006). Breeding phenology of an amphibian community in a Mediterranean area. Amphibia-Reptilia 27, 549–559.
Breeding phenology of an amphibian community in a Mediterranean area.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rowe, C. L., and Dunson, W. A. (1993). Relationships among abiotic parameters and breeding effort by three amphibians in temporary wetlands of central Pennsylvania. Wetlands 13, 237–246.
Relationships among abiotic parameters and breeding effort by three amphibians in temporary wetlands of central Pennsylvania.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rowe, C. L., and Dunson, W. A. (1995). Impacts of hydroperiod on growth and survival of larval amphibians in temporary ponds of central Pennsylvania, USA. Oecologia 102, 397–403.
Impacts of hydroperiod on growth and survival of larval amphibians in temporary ponds of central Pennsylvania, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Rubbo, M. J., and Kiesecker, J. M. (2005). Amphibian breeding distribution in an urbanized landscape. Conservation Biology 19, 504–511.
Amphibian breeding distribution in an urbanized landscape.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Segev, O., Hill, N., Templeton, A. R., and Blaustein, L. (2010). Population size, structure and phenology of an endangered salamander at temporary and permanent breeding sites. Journal for Nature Conservation 18, 189–195.
Population size, structure and phenology of an endangered salamander at temporary and permanent breeding sites.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Semlitsch, R. D. (2000). Principles for management of aquatic-breeding amphibians. The Journal of Wildlife Management 64, 615–631.
Principles for management of aquatic-breeding amphibians.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Semlitsch, R. D., and Wilbur, H. M. (1988). Effects of pond drying time on metamorphosis and survival in the salamander Ambystoma talpoideum. Copeia 1988, 978–983.
Effects of pond drying time on metamorphosis and survival in the salamander Ambystoma talpoideum.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Shoo, L., Olson, D. H., McMenamin, S. K., Murray, K. A., Van Sluys, M., Donnelly, M. A., Stratford, D., Terhivuo, J., Merino-Viteri, A., Herbert, S. M., Bishop, P. J., Corn, P. S., Dovey, L., Griffiths, R. A., Lowe, K., Mahony, M., McCallum, H., Shuker, J. D., Simpkins, C., Skerratt, L. F., Williams, S. E., and Hero, J. M. (2011). Engineering a future for amphibians under climate change. Journal of Applied Ecology 48, 487–492.
Engineering a future for amphibians under climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Shuker, J. D., and Hero, J. M. (2012). Perch substrate use by the threatened wallum sedge frog (Litoria olongburensis) in wetland habitats of mainland eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Zoology 60, 219–224.
Perch substrate use by the threatened wallum sedge frog (Litoria olongburensis) in wetland habitats of mainland eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Simpkins, C. A., Shuker, J. D., Lollback, G. W., Castley, J. G., and Hero, J.-M. (2014). Environmental variables associated with the distribution and occupancy of habitat specialist tadpoles in naturally acidic, oligotrophic waterbodies. Austral Ecology 39, 95–105.
Environmental variables associated with the distribution and occupancy of habitat specialist tadpoles in naturally acidic, oligotrophic waterbodies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Skelly, D. K. (1996). Pond drying, predators, and the distribution of Pseudacris tadpoles. Copeia 1996, 599–605.
Pond drying, predators, and the distribution of Pseudacris tadpoles.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Smith, D. C. (1983). Factors controlling tadpole populations of the chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata) on Isle Royale, Michigan. Ecology 64, 501–510.
Factors controlling tadpole populations of the chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata) on Isle Royale, Michigan.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Snodgrass, J. W., Bryan, A. L., and Burger, J. (2000). Development of expectations of larval amphibian assemblage structure in southeastern depression wetlands. Ecological Applications 10, 1219–1229.
Development of expectations of larval amphibian assemblage structure in southeastern depression wetlands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Stern, H., de Hoedt, G., and Ernst, J. (2000). Objective classification of Australian climates. Australian Meteorological Magazine 49, 87–96.

Thomas, C. D., Cameron, A., Green, R. E., Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, L. J., Collingham, Y. C., Erasmus, B. F. N., Ferreira de Siqueira, M., Grainger, A., Hannah, L., Hughes, L., Huntley, B., van Jaarsveld, A. S., Midgley, G. F., Miles, L., Ortega-Huerta, M. A., Peterson, A. T., Phillips, O. L., and Williams, S. E. (2004). Extinction risk from climate change. Nature 427, 145–148.
Extinction risk from climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 14712274PubMed |

Walls, S. C., Barichivich, W. J., and Brown, M. E. (2013a). Drought, deluge and declines: the impact of precipitation extremes on amphibians in a changing climate. Biology 2, 399–418.
Drought, deluge and declines: the impact of precipitation extremes on amphibians in a changing climate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 24832668PubMed |

Walls, S. C., Barichivich, W. J., Brown, M. E., Scott, D. E., and Hossack, B. R. (2013b). Influence of drought on salamander occupancy of isolated wetlands on the southeastern coastal plain of the United States. Wetlands 33, 345–354.
Influence of drought on salamander occupancy of isolated wetlands on the southeastern coastal plain of the United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wassens, S., Walcott, A., Wilson, A., and Freire, R. (2013). Frog breeding in rain-fed wetlands after a period of severe drought: implications for predicting the impacts of climate change. Hydrobiologia 708, 69–80.
Frog breeding in rain-fed wetlands after a period of severe drought: implications for predicting the impacts of climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Waterkeyn, A., Grillas, P., Vanschoenwinkel, B., and Brendonck, L. (2008). Invertebrate community patterns in Mediterranean temporary wetlands along hydroperiod and salinity gradients. Freshwater Biology 53, 1808–1822.
Invertebrate community patterns in Mediterranean temporary wetlands along hydroperiod and salinity gradients.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wilbur, H. M. (1984). Complex life cycles and community organization in amphibians. In ‘A New Ecology: Novel Approaches to Interactive Systems’. (Eds P. W. Price, C. N. Slobodchikoff and W. S. Gaud.) pp. 195–224. (Wiley: New York.)

Wilbur, H. M. (1987). Regulation of structure in complex systems: experimental temporary pond communities. Ecology 68, 1437–1452.
Regulation of structure in complex systems: experimental temporary pond communities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Williams, S. E., Shoo, L. P., Isaac, J. L., Hoffmann, A. A., and Langham, G. (2008). Towards an integrated framework for assessing the vulnerability of species to climate change. PLoS Biology 6, e325.
Towards an integrated framework for assessing the vulnerability of species to climate change.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

Wood, S. (2012). mgcv: mixed GAM computational vehicle. R ver.1.7-16. Available at http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/mgcv/index.html [Verified 30 November 2014].