Rehabilitation of an incised ephemeral stream in central New South Wales, Australia: identification of incision causes, rehabilitation techniques and channel response
N. A. Streeton A C , R. S. B. Greene A , K. Marchiori A , D. J. Tongway A and M. D. Carnegie B
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Building 48, Linnaeus Way, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.
B Lake Cowal Foundation, PO Box 138, West Wyalong, NSW 2671, Australia.
C Corresponding author. Email: nick.streeton@jbaconsulting.com
The Rangeland Journal 35(1) 71-83 https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ12046
Submitted: 12 July 2012 Accepted: 17 January 2013 Published: 13 February 2013
Abstract
The degradation of semiarid agricultural rangelands in Australia can be traced back to the 19th century when Europeans expanded into these areas. That environmental degradation remains today and continues to harm agricultural productivity. The rehabilitation of a strongly incised ephemeral stream, ‘Spring Creek’, in central New South Wales, as an example of what can be achieved readily by landowners, is described. The causes of environmental degradation and the main environmental factors leading to the stream erosion were identified, rehabilitation began and the behaviour of the regime for 5 years within Spring Creek and the adjacent floodplain was monitored. It was found that intrinsically unstable sub-soils and sparse ground cover due to persistent grazing by domestic livestock were the major factors leading to incision. Several physical and chemical properties were found to be the primary causes of the soil’s instability.
Rehabilitation focussed on stabilising the soils alongside the stream, promoting sedimentation and re-vegetation of the stream bed, with a longer-term objective of increasing the transfer of water, sediments and nutrients between the stream and its adjacent floodplain. The measures, implemented by local landowners, included the provision of in-stream porous rock weirs and the lowering of the grazing pressure on the stream bed and adjacent floodplain. Monitoring in 2007, 2009 and 2011 indicated that sedimentation was substantially faster above weirs than where there were no weirs. The rehabilitative measures resulted in the retention of fine sediment (<0.2 mm) along the stream bed behind weirs.
Additional keywords: controlled grazing, in-stream weirs, semiarid.
References
Australian Natural Resources Data Library (2001). Rainfall erosivity (R Factor). Available at: www.adl.brs.gov.au/andr/php (accessed 5 November 2012).Bartley, R., Wilkinson, S. N., Hawdon, A. A., Abbott, B. A., and Post, D. A. (2010). Impacts of improved grazing land management on sediment yields. Part 2: Catchment response. Journal of Hydrology 389, 249–259.
| Impacts of improved grazing land management on sediment yields. Part 2: Catchment response.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Beadle, N. C. W. (1959). Some aspects of ecological research in semi-arid Australia. In: ‘Biogeography and Ecology in Australia’. (Eds A. Keast, R. L. Crocker and C. S. Christian.) pp. 452–460. (Dr. W. Junk: The Hague.)
Beechie, T. J., Pollock, M. M., and Baker, S. (2008). Channel incision, evolution and potential recovery in the Walla Walla and Tucannon River basins, north-western USA. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 33, 784–800.
| Channel incision, evolution and potential recovery in the Walla Walla and Tucannon River basins, north-western USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bombino, G., Gurnell, A. M., Tamburino, V., Zema, D. A., and Zimbone, S. M. (2008). Sediment size variation in torrents with check dams: effects on riparian vegetation. Ecological Engineering 32, 166–177.
| Sediment size variation in torrents with check dams: effects on riparian vegetation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brady, N. C., and Weil, R. R. (2008). ‘The Nature and Properties of Soils.’ 14th edn. (Prentice-Hall: London.)
Brierley, G. J., and Fryirs, K. A. (2005). ‘Geomorphology and River Management: Applications of the River Styles Framework.’ (Blackwell Publications: Oxford.)
Brierley, G. J., and Fryirs, K. A. (2008). ‘River Futures: An Integrative Scientific Approach to River Repair.’ (Island Press: Washington, DC.)
Bull, W. B. (1997). Discontinuous ephemeral streams. Geomorphology 19, 227–276.
| Discontinuous ephemeral streams.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Corbett, J. R. (1969). ‘The Living Soil: The Process of Soil Formation.’ (Martindale Press: West Como.)
Cumming, R. W., and Elliott, G. L. (1991). Soil chemical properties. In: ‘Soils: Their Properties and Management’. 3rd edn. (Eds P. E. V. Charman and B. W. Murphy.) pp. 193–205. (Sydney University Press: Sydney.)
English, W. J. (1978). ‘Around the Cowal.’ (Bland District Historical Society: West Wyalong.)
Erskine, W. D. (2008). Channel incision and sand compartmentalization in an Australian sandstone drainage basin subject to high flood variability. In: ‘Sediment Dynamics in Changing Environments’. IAHS Publication No. 325. (Eds J. Schmidt, T. Cochrane, C. Phillips, S. Elliott, T. Davies, L. Basher.) pp. 283–290. (IAHS Press: Wallingford.)
Eyles, R. J. (1977). Changes in drainage networks since 1820, Southern Tablelands, N.S.W. The Australian Geographer 13, 377–386.
| Changes in drainage networks since 1820, Southern Tablelands, N.S.W.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Field, D. J., McKenzie, D. C., and Koppi, A. J. (1997). Development of an improved Vertisol stability test for SOILpak. Australian Journal of Soil Research 35, 843–852.
| Development of an improved Vertisol stability test for SOILpak.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Frissell, C. A., Liss, W. L., Warren, C. E., and Hurley, M. D. (1986). A hierarchical framework for stream habitat classification: viewing streams in a watershed context. Environmental Management 10, 199–214.
| A hierarchical framework for stream habitat classification: viewing streams in a watershed context.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fryirs, K. A., Brierley, G. J., Preston, N. J., and Kasai, M. (2007). Buffers, barriers and blankets: the dis(connectivity) of catchment-scale sediment cascades. Catena 70, 49–67.
| Buffers, barriers and blankets: the dis(connectivity) of catchment-scale sediment cascades.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fu, G., Chen, S., and McCool, D. K. (2006). Modelling the impacts of no-till practice on soil erosion and sediment yield with RUSLE, SEDD and ArcView GIS. Soil & Tillage Research 85, 38–49.
| Modelling the impacts of no-till practice on soil erosion and sediment yield with RUSLE, SEDD and ArcView GIS.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Greene, R. S. B., and Hairsine, P. B. (2004). Elementary processes of soil-water interaction and thresholds in soil surface dynamics: a review. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 29, 1077–1091.
| Elementary processes of soil-water interaction and thresholds in soil surface dynamics: a review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXotV2kt7s%3D&md5=07a8674c7564b6adb04ac8b977a451cfCAS |
Greene, R. S. B., and Tongway, D. J. (1989). The significance of (surface) physical and chemical properties in determining soil surface condition of red earths in rangelands. Australian Journal of Soil Research 27, 213–255.
| The significance of (surface) physical and chemical properties in determining soil surface condition of red earths in rangelands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL1MXksFKgtLg%3D&md5=0448b936dc65fd2224c3295efb74758eCAS |
Greene, R. S. B., Kinnell, P. I. A., and Wood, J. T. (1994). Role of plant cover and stock trampling on run-off and soil erosion from semi-arid wooded rangelands. Australian Journal of Soil Research 32, 953–973.
| Role of plant cover and stock trampling on run-off and soil erosion from semi-arid wooded rangelands.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hacker, R. (1993). A brief evaluation of time control grazing. In: ‘The Proceedings of the 8th Grassland Society of NSW Conference’. (Ed. D. Michalk.) pp. 82–89. (The Grassland Society of NSW Inc.: Orange.)
Hazell, D., Osborne, W., and Lindenmayer, D. (2003). Impact of post-European stream change on frog habitat: south-eastern Australia. Biodiversity and Conservation 12, 301–320.
| Impact of post-European stream change on frog habitat: south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Isbell, R. F. (2002). ‘The Australian Soil Classification.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Kemper, W. D., and Rosenau, R. C. (1986). Aggregate stability and size distribution. In: ‘Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1: Physical and Mineralogical Methods’. (Ed. A. Klute.) pp. 425–442. (American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI.)
King, D. P. (1998). ‘Soil Landscapes of the Forbes 1 : 250 000 Sheet Report.’ (Department of Land and Water Conservation: Sydney.)
Lu, H., Gallant, J., Prosser, I. P., Moran, C., and Priestly, G. (2001). Prediction of sheet and rill erosion over the Australian continent, incorporating monthly soil loss distribution. Technical Report 13/01. CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra.
Molina, A., Govers, G., Van den Putte, A., and Vanacker, V. (2009). Reducing the hydrological connectivity of gully systems through vegetation restoration: combined field experiment and numerical modelling approach. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 6, 2537–2571.
| Reducing the hydrological connectivity of gully systems through vegetation restoration: combined field experiment and numerical modelling approach.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Noble, J. C., and Tongway, D. J. (1986). Pastoral settlement in arid and semi-arid rangelands. In: ‘Australian Soils: The Human Impact’. (Eds J. S. Russell and R. F. Isbell.) pp. 217–242. (University of Queensland Press: St Lucia.)
Norton, J. B., Bowannie, F., Peynetsa, P., Quandelacy, W., and Siebert, S. F. (2002). Native American methods for conservation and restoration of semi-arid ephemeral streams. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 57, 250–258.
Olley, J. M., Murray, A. S., Mackenzie, D. H., and Edwards, K. (1993). Identifying sediment sources in a gullied catchment using natural and anthropogenic radioactivity. Water Resources Research 29, 1037–1043.
| Identifying sediment sources in a gullied catchment using natural and anthropogenic radioactivity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3sXmslGnsbY%3D&md5=c11ba29dee3bdbf06fa6766d3ff9cc60CAS |
Page, K., Frazier, P., Pietsch, T., and Dehaan, R. (2007). Channel change following European settlement: Gilmore Creek, south-eastern Australia. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 32, 1398–1411.
| Channel change following European settlement: Gilmore Creek, south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Prosser, I. P., and Winchester, S. J. (1996). History and processes of gully initiation and development in eastern Australia. Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie Supplementband 105, 91–109.
Rayment, G. E., and Higginson, F. R. (1992). ‘Australian Laboratory Handbook of Soil and Water Chemical Methods.’ (Inkata Press: North Ryde.)
Rengasamy, P., Greene, R. S. B., Ford, G. W., and Mehanni, A. H. (1984). Identification of dispersive behaviour and the management of red-brown earths. Australian Journal of Soil Research 22, 413–431.
| Identification of dispersive behaviour and the management of red-brown earths.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL2MXitlCrtA%3D%3D&md5=1264de0129d85b0c6cee233a7495a80bCAS |
Shields, F. D., Knight, S. S., and Cooper, C. M. (1997). Rehabilitation of warm-water stream ecosystems following channel incision. Ecological Engineering 8, 93–116.
| Rehabilitation of warm-water stream ecosystems following channel incision.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stavi, I., Perevolotsky, A., and Avni, Y. (2010). Effects of gully formation and head-cut retreat on primary production in an arid rangeland: natural desertification in action. Journal of Arid Environments 74, 221–228.
| Effects of gully formation and head-cut retreat on primary production in an arid rangeland: natural desertification in action.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Tongway, D. J., and Ludwig, J. A. (2011). ‘Restoring Disturbed Landscapes: Putting Principles into Practice.’ (Island Press: Washington, DC.)
Valentin, C., and Bresson, L. M. (1992). Morphology, genesis and classification of surface crusts in loamy and sandy soils. Geoderma 55, 225–245.
| Morphology, genesis and classification of surface crusts in loamy and sandy soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Watson, C. C., Biedenharn, D. S., and Bledsoe, B. P. (2002). Use of incised channel evolution models in understanding rehabilitation alternatives. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 38, 151–160.
| Use of incised channel evolution models in understanding rehabilitation alternatives.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Zierholz, C., Prosser, I. P., Fogarty, P. J., and Rustomji, P. (2001). In-stream wetlands and their significance for channel filling in the catchment sediment budget, Jugiong Creek, New South Wales. Geomorphology 38, 221–235.
| In-stream wetlands and their significance for channel filling in the catchment sediment budget, Jugiong Creek, New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
