Pronounced surface stratification of soil phosphorus, potassium and sulfur under pastures upstream of a eutrophic wetland and estuarine system
Megan H. Ryan A F , Mark Tibbett B , Hans Lambers A , David Bicknell C , Phillip Brookes D , Edward G. Barrett-Lennard A C , Carlos Ocampo E and Dion Nicol A C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A School of Plant Biology, and Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Hwy, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
B Centre for Agri-Environmental Research, School of Agriculture Policy and Development, University of Reading, Earley Gate, PO Box 237, Reading, RG6 6AR, UK.
C Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, 3 Baron-Hay Court, South Perth WA, WA 6151, Australia.
D College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Institute of Soil & Water Resources and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China.
E School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Hwy, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia.
F Corresponding author. Email: megan.ryan@uwa.edu.au
Soil Research 55(7) 657-669 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR16144
Submitted: 31 May 2016 Accepted: 31 January 2017 Published: 15 March 2017
Abstract
High concentrations of nutrients in surface soil present a risk of nutrient movement into waterways through surface water pathways and leaching. Phosphorus (P) is of particular concern because of its role in aquatic system eutrophication. We measured nutrients under annual pastures on a beef farm and a dairy farm in the Peel–Harvey catchment, Western Australia. Soils were sampled in 10-mm increments to 100 mm depth in March, June and September. Plant litter contained approximately 300–550 mg kg–1 Colwell-extractable P. Extractable soil P was strongly stratified, being approximately 100–225 mg kg–1 (dairy) and 50–110 mg kg–1 (beef) in the top 10 mm and <40 mg kg–1 at 40–50 mm depth. Total P and extractable potassium were also highly stratified, whereas sulfur was less strongly stratified. Shoot nutrient concentrations indicated that nitrogen was often limiting and sulfur was sometimes limiting for pasture growth: concentrations of P were often much greater than required for adequate growth (>4 mg g–1). We conclude that high P concentrations at the soil surface and in litter and shoots are a source of risk for movement of P from farms into waterways in the Peel–Harvey catchment.
Additional keywords: eutrophication, nutrient stratification, organic matter, pH, surface soil.
References
Allen DG, Jeffrey RC (1990) ‘Methods of analysis of phosphorus in Western Australian soils.’ (Chemistry Centre of WA: Perth, WA)Betti G, Grant C, Churchman G, Murray R (2015) Increased profile wettability in texture-contrast soils from clay delving: case studies in South Australia. Soil Research 53, 125–136.
Birch PB (1982) Phosphorus export from coastal plain drainage into the Peel–Harvey estuarine system of Western Australia. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 33, 23–32.
| Phosphorus export from coastal plain drainage into the Peel–Harvey estuarine system of Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL38XhsVyktr8%3D&md5=fc99add1ef60f2bd51fde9c45e6372fbCAS |
Blackwell MSA, Brookes PC, de la Fuente-Martinez N, Murray PJ, Snars KE, Williams JK, Haygarth PM (2009) Effects of soil drying and rate of re-wetting on concentrations and forms of phosphorus in leachate. Biology and Fertility of Soils 45, 635–643.
| Effects of soil drying and rate of re-wetting on concentrations and forms of phosphorus in leachate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Blair GJ, Chinoim N, Lefroy RDB, Anderson GC, Crocker GJ (1991) A soil sulfur test for pastures and crops. Australian Journal of Soil Research 29, 619–626.
| A soil sulfur test for pastures and crops.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXmsFGjtr4%3D&md5=75d467eb994d7fd35f7d3eb3d4a384bfCAS |
Bradley J, Vimpany I, Nicholls PJ (1984) Effects of waterlogging and subsequent drainage of a pasture soil on phosphate sorption, extractable phosphate and oxalate-extractable iron. Australian Journal of Soil Research 22, 455–461.
| Effects of waterlogging and subsequent drainage of a pasture soil on phosphate sorption, extractable phosphate and oxalate-extractable iron.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL2MXitlGitw%3D%3D&md5=817db2df27df53dee78eee19b4c2a2c0CAS |
Bromfield SM, Jones OL (1972) Initial leaching of hayed-off pasture plants in relation to cycling of phosphorus. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 23, 811–824.
| Initial leaching of hayed-off pasture plants in relation to cycling of phosphorus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cayley JWD, McCaskill MR, Kearney GA (2002) Available phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, and other cations in a long-term grazing experiment in south-western Victoria. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 53, 1349–1360.
| Available phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, and other cations in a long-term grazing experiment in south-western Victoria.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Coad JR, Burkitt LL, Gourley CJP (2010) Influence of sample depth on extractable nutrient concentrations, pH and the phosphorus buffering index of pasture soils in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 48, 355–360.
| Influence of sample depth on extractable nutrient concentrations, pH and the phosphorus buffering index of pasture soils in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXnsValsrY%3D&md5=86eec140990d415bca387d0552680460CAS |
Colwell JD (1963) The estimation of the phosphorus fertiliser requirements of wheat in southern NSW by soil analysis. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 3, 190–197.
| The estimation of the phosphorus fertiliser requirements of wheat in southern NSW by soil analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaF2cXnvVOhsQ%3D%3D&md5=e6c9308aed281d95fd20078240218700CAS |
Colwell JD (1965) An automatic procedure for the determination of phosphorus in sodium hydrogen carbonate extracts of soils. Chemistry & Industry 10, 893–895.
Conyers MK, Scott BJ (1989) The influence of surface incorporated lime on subsurface soil acidity. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 29, 201–207.
| The influence of surface incorporated lime on subsurface soil acidity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cooper WS (1979) Drainage and irrigation. In ‘Western landscapes’. (Ed. J Gentilli) pp. 245–252. (UWA Press: Perth)
Dang YP, Seymour NP, Walker SR, Bell MJ, Freebairn DM (2015) Strategic tillage in no-till farming systems in Australia’s northern grains-growing regions: I. Drivers and implementation. Soil & Tillage Research 152, 104–114.
| Strategic tillage in no-till farming systems in Australia’s northern grains-growing regions: I. Drivers and implementation.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dougherty WJ, Nash DM, Chittleborough DJ, Cox JW, Fleming NK (2006) Stratification, forms, and mobility of phosphorus in the topsoil of a Chromosol used for dairying. Australian Journal of Soil Research 44, 277–284.
| Stratification, forms, and mobility of phosphorus in the topsoil of a Chromosol used for dairying.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XktFWitLo%3D&md5=e662ced701fc7c74be1db3111d3f6125CAS |
Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) (2008) ‘Water quality improvement plan for the rivers and estuary of the Peel–Harvey system – phosphorus management.’ (EPA: Perth, WA)
Evans CM, Conyers MK, Black AS, Poile GJ (1998) Effect of ammonium, organic amendments, and plant growth on soil pH stratification. Australian Journal of Soil Research 36, 641–653.
| Effect of ammonium, organic amendments, and plant growth on soil pH stratification.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXks1Kitr0%3D&md5=fa9bf2f79c7fa1ca2cb1e94307787ac3CAS |
Fulkerson WJ, Slack K, Hennessy DW, Hough GM (1998) Nutrients in ryegrass (Lolium spp.), white clover (Trifolium repens) and kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) pastures in relation to season and stage of regrowth in a subtropical environment. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 38, 227–240.
| Nutrients in ryegrass (Lolium spp.), white clover (Trifolium repens) and kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) pastures in relation to season and stage of regrowth in a subtropical environment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXksVyhuro%3D&md5=520712bd797bda67644dbb0bf3116cb4CAS |
Hale J, Butcher R (2007) Ecological character description of the Peel–Yalgorup Ramsar Site. Report to the Department of Environment and Conservation and the Peel–Harvey Catchment Council, Perth, WA, Australia.
Haling RE, Yang Z, Shadwell N, Culvenor RA, Stefanski A, Ryan MH, Sandral GA, Kidd DR, Lambers H, Simpson RJ (2016) Growth and root dry matter allocation by pasture legumes and a grass with contrasting external critical phosphorus requirements. Plant and Soil 407, 67–79.
| Growth and root dry matter allocation by pasture legumes and a grass with contrasting external critical phosphorus requirements.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhvFyns7c%3D&md5=d3133ddfef1c92051bca9e9801cc68aaCAS |
Haygarth PM, Hepworth L, Jarvis SC (1998) Forms of phosphorus transfer in hydrological pathways from soil under grazed grassland. European Journal of Soil Science 49, 65–72.
| Forms of phosphorus transfer in hydrological pathways from soil under grazed grassland.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Haynes RJ, Williams PH (1992) Long-term effect of superphosphate on accumulation of soil-phosphorus and exchangeable cations on a grazed, irrigated pasture site. Plant and Soil 142, 123–133.
| Long-term effect of superphosphate on accumulation of soil-phosphorus and exchangeable cations on a grazed, irrigated pasture site.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK38XltFSkt7k%3D&md5=e3603a12b48b81bc77cc84d11e874275CAS |
Heckrath G, Brookes PC, Poulton PR, Goulding KWT (1995) Phosphorus leaching from soils containing different phosphorus concentrations in the Broadbalk Experiment. Journal of Environmental Quality 24, 904–910.
| Phosphorus leaching from soils containing different phosphorus concentrations in the Broadbalk Experiment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXot1Wks7k%3D&md5=f8dd76bde049f81a2e16a16ae89381dbCAS |
Jarvie HP, Sharpley AN, Withers PJA, Scott JT, Haggard BE, Neal C (2013) Phosphorus mitigation to control river eutrophication: murky waters, inconvenient truths, and ‘postnormal’ science. Journal of Environmental Quality 42, 295–304.
| Phosphorus mitigation to control river eutrophication: murky waters, inconvenient truths, and ‘postnormal’ science.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXntVChtLk%3D&md5=8a6d12b1afdc547847f0ca5ebd78d148CAS |
Kuo S (1996) Phosphorus. In ‘Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. Chemical methods’. SSSA Book Series No. 5. (Eds D Sparks, A Page, P Helmke, R Loeppert) pp. 869–920. (Soil Science Society of America, Inc.: Madison, WI)
Lambers H, Ahmedi I, Berkowitz O, Dunne C, Finnegan PM, Hardy GESJ, Jost R, Laliberté E, Pearse SJ, Teste FP (2013) Phosphorus nutrition of phosphorus-sensitive Australian native plants: threats to plant communities in a global biodiversity hotspot. Conservation Physiology 1, cot010.
| Phosphorus nutrition of phosphorus-sensitive Australian native plants: threats to plant communities in a global biodiversity hotspot.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lukatelich RJ, McComb AJ (1986) Nutrient levels and the development of diatom and blue–green-algal blooms in a shallow Australian estuary. Journal of Plankton Research 8, 597–618.
| Nutrient levels and the development of diatom and blue–green-algal blooms in a shallow Australian estuary.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McArthur W, Bettenay E, (1956) ‘Soil Map. Pinjarra Waroona area, land district of Murray, south west division of Western Australia’ (CSIRO, Division of Soils: Melbourne, Vic.)
McDowell RW, Nash DM, Robertson F (2007) Sources of phosphorus lost from a grazed pasture receiving simulated rainfall. Journal of Environmental Quality 36, 1281–1288.
| Sources of phosphorus lost from a grazed pasture receiving simulated rainfall.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhtV2nsL7M&md5=7628b4de762c212b44a32bc40b7be53aCAS |
McDowell RW, Sharpley AN, Crush JR, Simmons T (2011) Phosphorus in pasture plants: potential implications for phosphorus loss in surface runoff. Plant and Soil 345, 23–35.
| Phosphorus in pasture plants: potential implications for phosphorus loss in surface runoff.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXptFymt7w%3D&md5=03f99cccc88355e5306e6477f2d9b2c1CAS |
McLaren TI, Simpson RJ, McLaughlin MJ, Smernik RJ, McBeath TM, Guppy CN, Richardson AE (2015) An assessment of various measures of soil phosphorus and the net accumulation of phosphorus in fertilized soils under pasture. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 178, 543–554.
| An assessment of various measures of soil phosphorus and the net accumulation of phosphorus in fertilized soils under pasture.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXhtVGmu7jO&md5=03e4a234af826987bee4168f79bec591CAS |
McLaren TI, McLaughlin MJ, McBeath TM, Simpson RJ, Smernik RJ, Guppy CN, Richardson AE (2016) The fate of fertiliser P in soil under pasture and uptake by subterraneum clover – a field study using 33P-labelled single superphosphate. Plant and Soil 401, 23–38.
| The fate of fertiliser P in soil under pasture and uptake by subterraneum clover – a field study using 33P-labelled single superphosphate.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXht1Grtb%2FJ&md5=1a26c7acaeb1694b226da9bd17853238CAS |
McLaughlin MJ, Baker TG, James TR, Rundle JA (1990) Distribution and forms of phosphorus and aluminum in acidic topsoils under pastures in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 28, 371–385.
| Distribution and forms of phosphorus and aluminum in acidic topsoils under pastures in south-eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaK3cXlslSqsbc%3D&md5=d16ddc4aa883c614aaa3ae1ba173fb8fCAS |
Melland AR, Mc Caskill MR, White RE, Chapman DF (2008) Loss of phosphorus and nitrogen in runoff and subsurface drainage from high and low input pastures grazed by sheep in southern Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 46, 161–172.
| Loss of phosphorus and nitrogen in runoff and subsurface drainage from high and low input pastures grazed by sheep in southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXjtlGlsLY%3D&md5=e311bd50dd1dad702eef53b57e9ca7f4CAS |
Murphy J, Riley JP (1962) A modified single solution method for the determination of phosphate in natural waters. Analytica Chimica Acta 27, 31–36.
| A modified single solution method for the determination of phosphate in natural waters.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaF38XksVyntr8%3D&md5=c4b59f3a41421cbd1742afa0d622b880CAS |
Nash DM, Haygarth PM, Turner BL, Condron LM, McDowell RW, Richardson AE, Watkins M, Heaven MW (2014) Using organic phosphorus to sustain pasture productivity: a perspective. Geoderma 221, 11–19.
| Using organic phosphorus to sustain pasture productivity: a perspective.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Nash DM, Watkins M, Heaven MW, Hannah M, Robertson F, McDowell R (2015) Effects of cultivation on soil and soil water under different fertiliser regimes. Soil & Tillage Research 145, 37–46.
| Effects of cultivation on soil and soil water under different fertiliser regimes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Noack SR, McLaughlin MJ, Smernik RJ, McBeath TM, Armstrong RD (2012) Crop residue phosphorus: speciation and potential bio-availability. Plant and Soil 359, 375–385.
| Crop residue phosphorus: speciation and potential bio-availability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhtlGmsrrF&md5=e45cb294a1483f33349cc036fe1c3569CAS |
Ozanne PG, Keay J, Biddiscombe EF (1969) Comparative applied phosphate requirements of eight annual pasture species. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 20, 809–818.
| Comparative applied phosphate requirements of eight annual pasture species.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaE3cXmsF2ntA%3D%3D&md5=a554a1244f43451a08e09d5d03cbd1d3CAS |
Rayment GE, Lyons D (2011) ‘Soil chemical methods – Australasia.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne, Vic.)
Rivers MR, Weaver DM, Smettem KRJ, Davies PM (2013) Estimating farm to catchment nutrient fluxes using dynamic simulation modelling – can agri-environmental BMPs really do the job? Journal of Environmental Management 130, 313–323.
| Estimating farm to catchment nutrient fluxes using dynamic simulation modelling – can agri-environmental BMPs really do the job?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhsl2jtr7P&md5=908fe8e8335fda04d42ca503f311eea4CAS |
Ruprecht JK, George PR (1993) Hydrology of the Peel–Harvey estuary catchment. Fertilizer Research 36, 127–133.
| Hydrology of the Peel–Harvey estuary catchment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Saarela I, Vuorinen M (2010) Stratification of soil phosphorus, pH, and macro-cations under intensively cropped grass ley. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 86, 367–381.
| Stratification of soil phosphorus, pH, and macro-cations under intensively cropped grass ley.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Sandral G, Simpson R, Yang Z, Culvenor R, Kidd D, Lambers H, Ryan M (2015) Phosphorus efficient pastures: response of alternative legumes to fertiliser application. In ‘Proceedings of the 17th Australian Agronomy Conference’, 21–24 September 2015, Hobart, Tas. (Eds T Acuña, C Moeller, D Parsons, M Harrison). (Australian Society of Agronomy: Warragul, Vic.)
Sharpley AN, Bergstrom L, Aronsson H, Bechmann M, Bolster CH, Borling K, Djodjic F, Jarvie HP, Schoumans OF, Stamm C, Tonderski KS, Ulen B, Uusitalo R, Withers PJA (2015) Future agriculture with minimized phosphorus losses to waters: research needs and direction. Ambio 44, S163–S179.
| Future agriculture with minimized phosphorus losses to waters: research needs and direction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Simmonds B, McDowell RW, Condron LM (2017) The effect of soil moisture extremes on the pathways and forms of phosphorus lost in runoff from two contrasting soil types. Soil Research 55, 19–27.
| The effect of soil moisture extremes on the pathways and forms of phosphorus lost in runoff from two contrasting soil types.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2sXhsFej&md5=4330ed8444707ff9fa3de8aad630ca4dCAS |
Sparling GP, Whale KN, Ramsay AJ (1985) Quantifying the contribution from the soil microbial biomass to the extractable P-levels of fresh and air-dried soils. Australian Journal of Soil Research 23, 613–621.
| Quantifying the contribution from the soil microbial biomass to the extractable P-levels of fresh and air-dried soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaL28XjtlCksQ%3D%3D&md5=4f309b0d1e93df672682b28e414ce31eCAS |
Steele J (2008) Management of diffuse water quality pollution in the Peel–Harvey coastal drainage system: a strategic approach to implementation of best management practices. Report prepared for Peel–Harvey Catchment Council Inc., Peel Harvey Catchment Council, Mandurah, WA.
Summers RN, Smirk DD, Karafilis D (1996) Phosphorus retention and leachates from sandy soil amended with bauxite residue (red mud). Australian Journal of Soil Research 34, 555–567.
| Phosphorus retention and leachates from sandy soil amended with bauxite residue (red mud).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Vu DT, Tang C, Armstrong RD (2009) Tillage system affects phosphorus form and depth distribution in three contrasting Victorian soils. Soil Research 47, 33–45.
| Tillage system affects phosphorus form and depth distribution in three contrasting Victorian soils.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhvFagu78%3D&md5=c1a44817b6f4c62b8d6210b97717be69CAS |
Walkley A, Black IA (1934) An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science 37, 29–38.
| An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaA2cXitlGmug%3D%3D&md5=61a7a47ca314e749c71090a848da451bCAS |
Watson ER (1969) The influence of subterranean clover pastures on soil fertility III. Effect of applied phosphorus and sulphur. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 20, 447–456.
| The influence of subterranean clover pastures on soil fertility III. Effect of applied phosphorus and sulphur.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DyaF1MXkvFSgsL4%3D&md5=26304ab5ece221ff728afdb6519637cbCAS |
Weaver DM, Reed AEG (1998) Patterns of nutrient status and fertiliser practice on soils of the south coast of Western Australia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 67, 37–53.
| Patterns of nutrient status and fertiliser practice on soils of the south coast of Western Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weaver D, Summers R (2014) Fit-for-purpose phosphorus management: do riparian buffers qualify in catchments with sandy soils? Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 186, 2867–2884.
| Fit-for-purpose phosphorus management: do riparian buffers qualify in catchments with sandy soils?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXlt1ajsg%3D%3D&md5=5ec33fbf1cf84dbbf68e221270160eb1CAS |
Weir RG, Cresswell GC (1994) ‘Plant nutrient disorders 4: pastures and field crops.’ (Inkata: Melbourne, Vic.)
